Abstract
A comprehensive understanding of the church’s dual nature is essential for effective governance and management. Traditionally, the church has been viewed through dichotomous lenses as either a purely spiritual organism or a physical organisation, often leading to gaps in management practices. This article addresses the critical question: how can the church’s spiritual and physical dimensions be effectively integrated into governance and management practices, particularly for newly established and growing churches? The article aims to propose a dual perspective for conceptualising the church as both a spiritual and physical entity to improve its governance and management. By linking Organisational Life Cycle models to the physical nature of the church, the study argues for practical strategies to enhance governance, optimise resource allocation and refine management practices. The article employs a systematic literature review to analyse existing perspectives, identify gaps and propose a comprehensive framework for integrating the church’s dual nature. The findings highlight the importance of balancing the church’s spiritual ethos with its organisational structure, addressing critical gaps in governance and management practices caused by one-sided conceptualisations. This framework provides practical insights for church leaders and administrators, ensuring that the church remains true to its spiritual mission while achieving effective organisational management.
Contribution: This article makes a contribution to practical theology and organisational management within the context of ecclesial studies. Specifically, it addresses the intersection of theological understanding and management principles by offering a dual perspective on conceptualising the church as both a spiritual and physical entity. This contribution is particularly relevant for enhancing church governance, resource allocation and management practices, making it valuable for scholars, church leaders and administrators.
Keywords: organisational life cycle; organisational life cycle models; dual nature; management practices; church.
Introduction
The nature of the church has long been a subject of theological and practical discourse, particularly regarding its dual identity as a spiritual organism and a human institution (Erickson 2000; Grudem 2007; McGrath 2001). This dual nature raises significant questions about how the church should be conceptualised and managed, especially as it grows and adapts to evolving societal contexts (Awuku-Gyampoh & Asare 2019). Historically, some perspectives have leaned towards an exclusively spiritual view, emphasising the church’s divine mission while downplaying its structural and organisational needs (Barth 1956; Bentley 2009). Others have focused on the church as a physical organisation, prioritising human governance at the expense of spiritual vitality (Barth 1956; Bentley 2009). Both approaches, while valuable in their own right, often fail to capture the holistic identity of the church as both spiritual and physical.
This article posits that adopting a dual perspective – viewing the church as simultaneously spiritual and physical – is essential for effective governance and management. Such a balanced understanding aligns with biblical teachings and provides a practical framework for addressing the unique challenges of newly established and growing churches. By integrating Organisational Life Cycle (OLC) models into this dual conceptualisation, the article explores strategies to optimise governance, resource allocation and leadership practices.
The central question guiding this discussion is: how can the church’s dual nature be effectively integrated into governance and management practices, particularly for new and developing congregations? To address this, the article employs a systematic literature review to critically analyse existing perspectives on the nature of the church, revealing significant gaps in how its spiritual and physical dimensions are understood and managed. Building on these insights, it proposes a comprehensive framework for integrating the church’s dual nature, aimed at addressing these gaps and enhancing governance and management practices in a balanced and practical manner.
This study begins by exploring theological foundations underpinning the church’s dual nature as both a spiritual and physical entity. Subsequently, it critically examines the challenges and risks associated with neglecting either dimension, highlighting the implications for effective church functioning. The study then integrates insights from OLC theory, demonstrating how these principles can inform and enhance church governance and management practices. Finally, the article concludes by offering practical recommendations for fostering a balanced approach to church governance.
A case for conceptualising the church in dual terms
Definition of the church
The notion of the church has exhibited a diverse range of facets and encompasses various theological concepts, which are manifested in distinct manners within a given society (Beukes 2019:2; Forster & Oostenbrink 2015:5). According to Shekhar (2017), two Greek terms are often used to describe ‘church’ in the New Testament; one is ekklesia, ‘an assembly of people gathered together to worship God’ and the other is Kuriakon, ‘belonging to the Lord’. Often ekklesia is defined by the genitive phrase ekklesia tou theou [church of God](e.g. see Gl 1:13; I Cor 14:4; Phlp 3:6). Taken together, ekkelesia and kuriakon would render the meaning of church to be the company of God’s people called to worship Him (Shekhar 2017:1227). Grudem (2007:853) provides a concise definition of the church as ‘the community of all true believers of all time’.
The term Oikos, generally translated as ‘household’, is the most commonly used word for family that encompasses the extended family, housemates and servants, in the New Testament (Cress 2018:10; Flores 2020:12; Oosthuizen & Lategan 2015:556; Wendt 2018:2). When used in a spiritual sense and in relation to the church, oikos carries the same connotation as ekklesia, which means an assembly or the gathering of believers (Nortjé-Meyer & Vrey 2016:57; Wendt 2018:2). In short, oikos is the church (Lau 2016:37).
In the strictest sense, and rightly conceived, the church is a New Testament concept and ought to be regarded as such (Jacobs 2015:73–74; eds. Merkle & Schreiner 2014:14; Oosthuizen & Lateran 2015:554; Shekhar 2017:1228). Shekhar (2017:1228) argues that the concept of the church should be viewed through the lens of the New Testament. To support this claim, Shekhar (2017) employs the metaphor of the body of Christ, asserting that all other depictions of the church found in the Holy Scripture and patristic tradition should be interpreted in light of the ecclesiology of the body of Christ, which is deemed as the genuine representation of the Church.
Oosthuizen and Lategan (2015:554) observe that the concept of the church has its roots in the Old Testament’s notion of the qahal JHWH (the assembly of God’s people). In the Old Testament, the temple and societal structures were closely intertwined, reflecting an undifferentiated system where religious and social life were unified. However, in the New Testament, the church emerges within a more differentiated societal framework, with distinct structures and functions tailored to the realities of a new covenant community. This shift signifies the church’s development unique to the New Testament era, reflecting its adaptation to a transformed social and theological context.
Merkle and Schreiner (eds. 2014:14) reinforce this perspective through their comparative analysis of the office of an elder in the Old and New Testaments. They conclude that the role of the elder, as seen in the New Testament, is relatively novel and reflects the distinct organisational needs of the early church. While leadership in the Old Testament was primarily tied to familial or tribal authority, the New Testament presents a more formalised and communal leadership model, aligning with the church’s dual identity as a spiritual and physical organisational entity. The emergence of the church and its leadership structures in the New Testament, thus represents a significant evolution, responding to the unique demands of a new covenant community.
The New Testament provides a clear and compelling argument for understanding the church’s dual nature, encompassing its spiritual and physical dimensions. This duality is particularly evident in the metaphor of the church as the ‘household of God’, as highlighted in 1 Timothy 3:15 and 1 Peter 4:17. This image underscores the importance of effective management, as a household must function harmoniously to thrive. Thus, the church, like a household, requires both spiritual vitality and organised governance to fulfil its mission. The subsequent section delves into the biblical foundations of the church, providing a theological basis for understanding its dual nature.
Biblical foundations of the church as a household
The New Testament portrays the church as a divinely initiated entity rooted in the gospel. Jesus inaugurated this ‘household’ with his proclamation of the gospel, establishing it as the guiding principle for its life and governance (Shekhar 2017:1228). Jacobs (2015:74) affirms that the church is ‘formed in the gospel, informed by the gospel, and transformed by the gospel’, emphasising that its very existence is predicated on aligning with gospel principles. This places Jesus as the head of the church, with his gospel of grace (Ac 20:24) serving as the foundation for the heavenly kingdom he came to establish (Mt 24:14).
To what extent does this metaphor of a household extend beyond the spiritual? Jesus’ intercessory prayer in John 17 exemplifies the organic unity he envisioned for the church. He further demonstrated the servanthood expected within the household by washing his disciples’ feet in John 13, saying:
If I then, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you also ought to wash one another’s feet. For I have given you an example, that you also should do just as I have done to you. (vv. 14–15)
This family was to be characterised by servanthood and self-giving life as demonstrated by Christ’s own life example and was to be a permanent standard of how believers’ service of one another ought to be. Magezi (2015:7) highlights this self-sacrifice principle of Jesus as a remedy for leadership in Africa to emulate ‘Jesus as Servant King, who portrays a paradoxical mix of the king with power but vulnerable and serving’.
How should the church interact with the broader society if it is a household? This sacrificial life of service was not confined to God’s household but extended to one’s neighbour as well. This means believers were not to abandon life in the public sphere (politeia) but to address their obligations as citizens from the perspective of the Christian ethic (Pillay 2017:11). They were to engage in it albeit in an appropriate Christian way (1 Pt 2:11–12), thereby bringing the spiritual and the physical components of the church to bear on real-life situations.
What characteristics define a church that effectively embodies its spiritual and physical dimensions? Tien (2006:28) mentions four essential factors that made these early churches indeed a church: Koinonia [community], diakonia [service and mission], kerygma [gospel-rooted proclamation] and leiturgia (eucharist). All these characteristics were rooted in Jesus and his gospel, distinguished for their Christological motivation or the Christian characteristic (Cress 2018:43; Mahan 2012:77). These household codes, according to Blackburn (2001), were to influence inter-church fellowship and cooperation as he explains thus:
The New Testament writers assumed and took for granted that churches would associate with one another, work with each other, care for one another in unauthoritative way, and be answerable to one another. The apostolic practice of churches associating themselves with one another already existed before most New Testament books were written. (p. 29)
The New Testament presents a valid argument for the conceptualisation of the church’s nature in both organic and physical terms. Jesus initiated a religious movement within the Jewish community, whereby he effectively mobilised and structured his adherents under his leadership. The individual initiated the process by assembling a group of 12 individuals whom he specifically identified as apostles. This movement expanded into different Churches and spread all over the earth but still remained one organisation with the same banner of the people of ‘he way’ (Ac 24:4) or ‘Christians’ (Ac 11:26) under Christ’s rule as well as under their local leaders as the household of God. The New Testament presents a clear and unambiguous understanding of the movement or organisation of God as perceived by individuals. The New Testament church was perceived as an entity with a well-defined hierarchical framework and system of governance. The 16th-century reformers also formulated a dual conception of the nature of the church.
The following section briefly discusses the Reformers’ dual perspective on the church, emphasising their understanding of it as both a spiritual organism and a visible institution.
Reformers’ view on the dual conception of the church
For the reformers, the central issue in conceptualising the church was whether it should be understood as an organism, an institution or both (McGrath 2001). This debate stemmed from whether the church was purely visible (physical and formally organisational), purely invisible (spiritual and anti-formal), or a synthesis of both visible and invisible dimensions. The Roman Catholic Church at the time held a predominantly institutional view, defining the church as solely visible and formally hierarchical. In this perspective, salvation and other spiritual privileges were conferred not necessarily through personal faith but through membership in the institutional, hierarchical structure of the Roman Catholic Church (Erickson 2000:1054; Grudem 2007:855; McGrath 2001:495).
The reformers vehemently opposed this exclusive institutionalisation of the church, emphasising the primacy of its spiritual nature. Berkhof (1938) articulates this critique, explaining that the reformers sought to correct the misconception that the church, as described in the Bible, is merely an external institution. Instead, they stressed that the true church is the spiritual body of Christ, which is largely invisible in this present age but will ultimately be perfectly visible at the end of time (Letham 2019:793).
This perspective raises critical questions: how did the reformers balance the church’s spiritual essence with its visible organisational structures? Did their dual perspective allow for practical governance while maintaining theological integrity?
The reformers balanced the church’s spiritual essence with its visible organisational structures by affirming that the visible church serves as an imperfect but necessary expression of the spiritual body of Christ. They argued that while the true church is primarily spiritual and invisible, the visible church is essential for worship, teaching and the administration of sacraments. For instance, Berkhof (1938:566) observes that the visible church provides a tangible community through which believers grow in faith, but it must remain subordinate to the spiritual reality it represents.
Calvin further clarified this balance by describing the church as both a mother and a school for believers, emphasising that its visible organisation is a means of nurturing faith rather than an end in itself (McGrath 2001:497). This dual perspective allowed the reformers to reject the excessive formalism of the Roman Catholic Church while still affirming the need for orderly governance and accountability within local congregations.
Thus, the reformers maintained theological integrity by prioritising the spiritual essence of the church while ensuring practical governance through visible structures that supported the mission of Christ’s body.
The church in Evangelical Protestant thought
Bavinck, Bolt and Vriend (2008) acknowledge the dichotomous nature of the church by affirming that the church, as a congregation, manifests itself in both institutional and organic forms. This clarification specifies that the differentiation pertains exclusively to the visible (institutional) church, not the hidden (organic) church. Bavinck et al. (2008:330) posit that the church has historically existed in a bifurcated state, with a governing body operating in both the intangible sphere where Christ holds impact and the tangible sphere where some manner of structure has consistently been in place.
Strong (1907:902) also insists that government is indispensable for the church as a gathering of believers. As such, the church cannot lack the institution as it was always organised and institutionally arranged in some fashion (Strong 1907:902). Bartholomew (2017:174) quoted Kuyper stating that ‘the great need of the hour is a church that is both organism and institution, two characteristics held together in a free church’. Notwithstanding its unique character, mission, source and culture, the church was, is and always will be a real human organisation pleading for sound management (Oosthuizen & Lategan 2015:554). Therefore, the church is the body of Christ and a human institution (Austin-Roberson 2009:29).
Having highlighted the case for the church’s dual nature, we now discuss some of the issues that may arise whenever the church fails to uphold its dual concept by downplaying its spiritual or physical component.
The dangers of not upholding the balance of the church’s dual nature
When the spiritual component of the church is downplayed
When the spiritual aspect of the church is minimised or disregarded, there are likely consequences that impact the church’s ability to function efficiently. Without a robust spiritual component, the church moves towards secularism. According to Raubenheimer (2010:4), downplaying the spiritual aspect of the church replaces biblical leadership requirements with human philosophies. This not only contributes significantly to the church’s leadership crisis but also positions the church on the path to secularisation. He (Raubenheimer 2010) concludes that a leadership crisis is inevitable in the church because of the absence of a theologically informed definition of church leadership in secular approaches stating:
The only criterion which remotely fits the biblical description of the criteria for Church leadership is the vague ‘balanced spiritual life as a disciple of Christ’. This has not only led to a general confusion about the nature of leadership, but also to a comprise in understanding of the character and role of the leaders of the Church in a post-modern era. (p. 7)
Eklou (2021:1) attributes the pastoral leadership crisis in Togo’s Baptist congregations to the leaders’ failure to imitate Christ’s example and teachings in their leadership style. As required by the Bible, he accuses them of measuring success by numerical growth, which is a secular standard, and not by the spiritual health of the church members. He alleges (Eklou 2021:8) that they have turned pastoral work into a profession by enjoying the privileges of a prominent position. In contrast, church leadership is always servant leadership that requires the leader’s personal involvement with those who are led. Shepherds do not reside far from their flocks. They dwell among them and direct them. However, these leaders wait for their constituents to approach them (Eklou 2021).
Moreover, when the spiritual aspect of the church is neglected or minimised in the local church, it is likely to lead to divisions within the congregation. This was the conclusion reached by White (2019) regarding the problems that plagued Christ Apostolic Church International (CACI), the largest Pentecostal congregation in Ghana. The inability of church leaders to manage differences and conflicts was a direct result of their lack of doctrinal literacy. Consequently, the church encountered numerous splits during its first century of existence (2019:7). Nkonge (2011) also argues that it has caused people frustration and work disruptions, as well as hindered the Anglican Church of Kenya’s (ACK) operations (2011:170). However, there are also negative consequences when the physical component is minimised or disregarded.
When the physical component of the church is downplayed
When the physical component of the church is ignored or downplayed, it leads to hyper-spirituality that creates ambiguity in conceiving the physical, organisational structure of the local church. While the view may be applauded for the seemingly high regard for the spirituality of the church, it nonetheless is not always based on sound Christian thinking but on an erroneous gnostic dualism – a belief system from early Christian history that separated the spiritual and physical realms, often considering the physical as inferior or corrupt. It might lead to a hyper or super spiritual way of conceiving the church, thereby simultaneously misrepresenting the right way of conceiving it – both as spiritual and as human.
Austin-Robertson (2009:29) pointed out that ‘churches are characterised by both human (organisational) and godly (spiritual) attributes. The church is at once the body of Christ and a human institution’. Downplaying the physical component of the church fails to account for the biblical paradox that conceives believers to be already saved but yet to be saved, to be raised and seated with Christ in the heavens and yet still on earth (Col 3:1–4). As such, although the purely spiritual way of conceiving the church appears very impressive, it has a danger of imbibing within it the gnostic dualism tendencies that misrepresent the nature of the church. Consider a church that focuses exclusively on spiritual activities, such as prayer, worship and teaching, while neglecting its physical organisation, administration or social responsibilities. While its members might grow spiritually, the lack of effective governance could lead to disorganisation, financial mismanagement or an inability to address real-world challenges such as poverty or community outreach. This imbalance mirrors gnostic tendencies by elevating the spiritual while dismissing the physical, ultimately compromising the holistic mission of the church.
Downplaying the physical component of the church also has the potential to cause severe disagreements in the church. Sometimes, the downplaying of the human side is observed in the church leaders’ disputes regarding the correct interpretation of the text related to the matter with the nature of the church, leaving the congregation confused about what to adopt. Wring’s (2005:189) contention against the elders’ rule in the Southern Baptist Church polity is one such case. Strife among members has occurred in striving to find a pure church polity for the local church in the Southern Baptist churches. The discussion centres around the topics of elders, elder rule and the congregational form of church government. Hammett (2005:151) found that despite the long-standing and virtually unanimous support for congregationalism among Baptists, it faces several practical and theological challenges today.
The debate over what is the most spiritual position of church polity has plunged the Southern Baptist family of churches into a crisis, as leaders of different congregations attempt to persuade their congregants to adopt a position that they believe exemplifies a distinctive Baptist character and a proper form of church government (Wring 2005:188). In addition, deemphasising the church’s tangible aspect can negatively impact interchurches’ fellowship and cooperation. In most reformed Baptist congregations, there is a solid commitment to the autonomy of the local congregation. As a result, there is significant opposition to inter-church associations, which hinders meaningful fellowship between congregations. This is because of the fear that strong inter-church fellowships and collaborations would compromise the autonomy of the local church. Advocates of this view assert that informal inter-church relationships are superior because they more accurately reflect an affection for, fidelity to and respect for the authority of the scriptures (Kingdon 2001:16). However, this anti-formal approach has created relational and structural ambiguity within the church, as the Bible teaches and expects both concepts to be upheld simultaneously. To safeguard the local church’s autonomy, anti-formal approach has led to the preference of loose and even optional interchurch relationships. It has created structural, organisational ambiguity because it is anti-formal regarding church interdependence and fellowship out of concern that the local church’s authority could be usurped by an external body. This conundrum prompted Kingdon (2001) to lament:
While we have in general rediscovered Calvinistic Baptist theology, we have not yet rediscovered the ecclesiology of Particular Baptists in the formative years of 1640–60, when Particular Baptist churches were first founded in considerable numbers and operated in associations. (p. 16)
Hulse (2001:125) goes even further by providing statistical data regarding these associations, stating that between 1780 and 1790, 23 new Baptist associations were founded in America, almost double the number established in the previous 140 years of Baptist life. By 1814, there were 125 associations, up from 48 in 1800. The most prominent association in the United States was the Philadelphia Association, which flourished for over a century before abandoning its original reformed doctrine (Hulse 2001).
Blackburn (2001:37) observes that Baptists operated within associations of churches well before the ‘revivals’ and Charles Finney’s revivalism. The history of the Baptist church is replete with irrefutable evidence of these truths. Our exhaustive and insightful confession of faith would not have been possible if that association of churches in London did not exist. Contrary to what some have asserted, the 1689 Baptist Confession would not be known if it were not for its publication and dissemination by associations of particular Baptist congregations.
Renihan (2001:43) conveys similar sentiments when he states that Calvinistic Baptist churches in England believed in and practised inter-church communion from their inception in the 1640s. They believed that the autonomy of local churches did not imply isolation, and they took this belief into practice through associations. Seven London parishes collaborated to issue the first London confession in 1644 and the political climate of the 1650s allowed for the formation and operation of several regional associations.
The 1689 London Baptist Confession of faith, which is an official document of the majority of reformed Baptist churches not only emphasises the autonomy of the local church but also advocates vehemently for inter-church relations and fellowship between like-minded churches. It defines the theology of interchurches’ association as follows:
Each church and all its members are obliged to pray continually for the good and prosperity of the all churches everywhere. At all times, churches should assist all believers within the limits of their area and calling in exercising their gifts and graces. Therefore, when churches have been planted by the providence of God so that they may enjoy the opportunity and privilege of the fellowship, they should seek fellowship amongst themselves to promote peace, increase love, and mutual edification. (The 1689 Baptist Confession Chapter 26:14)
The framers of the Confession believed the New Testament church practised formal inter-church fellowship and collaboration; that churches were mutually bound to be accountable to each other because they were enjoying strong formal brotherly love among themselves at all times. Waldron (2016) makes this comment in the footnote:
The notion of ‘formal associations’ has been much debated among the reformed Baptists since the 1st Edition of A Modern exposition. It seems clear to me now that the most natural interpretation of the confession is that it assumes formal associations in 26:14–15. I am also convinced by the historical studies of Jim Renihan which show that the term, communion, was used formally by the framers of our confession and that, therefore, its use in both paragraphs 14 and 15 speaks of formal association and not informal fellowship. (p. 385)
Blackburn (2001:38) justifies the anti-formalisation of inter-church associations, noting that some have justified their refusal on theological grounds. However, based on the Holy Scriptures and the interpretations and practices of the forefathers, their refusal is without merit (Blackburn 2001).
Because of downplaying or ignoring the human element in conceptualising the nature of the church, Reformed Baptist churches are characterised by an absence of formality and loose or optional inter-church relations and cooperation. Worse still, minimising the physical aspect of the church’s essence has adverse effects on other crucial theological elements as well in the following two ways.
Firstly, it violates the Christian principle of church unity. Jesus’ promise to establish a church in Matthew 6:18 refers to a single, universal congregation. Paul affirms the unity of the church in Ephesians 4:1–6, emphasising ‘one faith, one baptism, one Lord, and one Father of all’ (Eph 4:5). He further demonstrated his care and concern for the churches by continually interceding for them in prayer: ‘I face daily the pressure of my concern for all the churches’ (2 Cor 11:28). We also see the significance of this unity in the priestly petition of the Lord Jesus, in which he prayed for the unity of all believers (Jn 17:20–22). This prayer was an exhortation to all believers who are members of Christ’s body that they, too, desire to promote unity, not only with those in one’s local congregation but also with all other congregations that are equally united to their Saviour. Blackburn (2001:35) argues that the New Testament provides evidence that churches were united in fellowship and association with one another for their mutual benefit and blessing and that they laboured together in biblical alliances instead of each church doing its own thing independently.
Secondly, it violates the principle of Christian brotherly love. Scripture teaches that love is the fulfilment of the law (Rm 13:8–10) and the mark of true discipleship (Mk 10:19). Therefore, believers must love one another, as Apostle John pointed out:
If anyone says, ‘I love God’, and hates his brother, he is a liar; for he who does not love his brother whom he has seen cannot love God whom he has not seen. And this commandment we have from him: whoever loves God must also love his brother. (1 Jn 4:20–21)
Scripture takes serious exception to the command for believers to love one another because love is proof of knowing and obeying God (1 Jn 2:3–6) and a clear distinctive mark of believers’ separation from God. Therefore, love ought to be the ground for Christian unity and the driving force behind inter-church fellowships because:
God is not the author of confusion but of peace, as in all the churches of the saints …. let all things be done decently and orderly. (1 Cor 14:33, 40; see also Rm 13:13; 1 Th 4:12)
Interpreted in this manner, affection for fellow believers is mandatory as a principle of the gospel and not merely a preferred alternative. One of the tenets of the believer’s close association with Christ is the requirement to be affiliated with a local church. According to Blackburn (2001:28), Kingdon (2001:13–14) and Renihan (2001:47), there exists a law that mandates churches to demonstrate their concern for one another as constituents of the same body of Christ.
The argument for a paradoxical perspective
The greatest obstacle to discussing the church’s dual nature has been the failure to maintain a balanced perspective of its paradoxical nature as both a spiritual and a human entity. The tendency has been to disregard or minimise one of these components, resulting in the extremes described above. Therefore, the correct method to understand the church’s nature is in terms of antinomy.
Antinomy is defined by Grenz, Guretzki and Nordling (1999:12) as ‘the bringing together of two principles, statements or laws that, even though appearing to be contradictory to or in tension with one another, are both believed to be true’. The Christian faith affirms a number of such independent truths that appear irreconcilable but are held together by faith. Several examples include the Trinity, the person of Christ as God-man, God’s will and our own free will. From the development of councils, creeds and confessions in church history, we learn that whenever theologians have attempted to penetrate these antinomy/paradox aspects of the faith, they have fallen into error or even heresy. According to Rogers (1992:91), creeds also serve as guides for the interpretation of Scripture, revealing how the church has historically interpreted its Holy Scriptures. They elucidate the community’s identity by distinguishing orthodoxy and rejecting heresy. As the church engages the world, it becomes a testimony, a witness and sometimes a rallying cry.
This serves as a warning against misinterpreting the biblical truth of the doctrine of the nature of the church, which may appear self-contradictory but actually consists of both spiritual and physical dimensions that complement each other.
Without a doubt, there is tension between the two components. But as there is no contradiction, there is no need to reconcile them. The tension must be managed so well that neither the church’s spiritual nor human aspects are overlooked or minimised. The Bible reminds us that God is a God of order, not disorder. Paul penned, ‘Let everything be done decently and in order’ (1 Cor 15:40). In addition, he stated, ‘God is not a God of confusion, but of peace’ (1 Cor 14:33). Moreover, he condemned those who ‘live completely unstructured way’ (2 Th 3:11).
Having established that the church should be understood as possessing a dual nature, it is reasonable to assert that, in the light of its physical aspects, the church can be managed or structured in a way similar to any other organisation. In this context, OLC models and circular management practices align with the church’s governance system. The following section presents a case for linking OLCs with church management practices, exploring how these organisational frameworks can optimise the church’s growth, resource management and leadership strategies.
A case for linking organisational life cycles and management practices to church governance
It has been established that while the church functions as an organisation in certain respects, it also possesses a distinct history, message, purpose, ethics, reliance and mission (Oosthuizen & Lategan 2015:553). The distinction between the organic and physical aspects of the church exists solely within the visible (institutional) church, not the invisible (organic) church. Organisational Life Cycle models guide the church in activities that require careful planning and execution to ensure success and foster its growth and development in the physical domain (Awuku-Gyampoh & Asare 2019:99).
It is essential to understand what OLC is. An Organisation Life Cycle (OLC) theory is defined by Ahmed (2013) as:
A theoretical model based on the changes organisations experience as they grow and mature, which specifies the structure, strategy, style and the critical conditions for development and environment according to the phases of the past and experienced by an organisation. (p. 450)
Rahimia and Fallah (2015:51) assert that organisations have a life cycle in which distinct policies are implemented at each stage. Aggregating organisations along these dimensions confirm the stages of development, as each life cycle stage has different factors that influence the organisation’s performance at that particular time. As an organisation, the church must be effectively governed to ensure efficient and effective resource utilisation and management practices for its growth and development (Chatira & Mwenje 2018:103; Oosthuizen & Lategan 2015:554; Magezi, Sichula & Nanthambwe 2023).
Acknowledging the church as an institution does not necessarily diminish its distinctiveness as a spiritual entity. The statement recognises the universality of management skills and principles in their application to the management of diverse organisations. As a spiritual entity, the ecclesiastical institution is eligible to be administered per established principles and methodologies of effective management. Applying OLC managerial skills and principles to the church as an organisation can be executed in various ways.
Firstly, churches change. Recognising that organisations undergo constant change has made the OLC theory useful for managing change and forming organisational expectations. Both explanatory and normative values of OLC theory contribute to the organisation’s survival. Jirásek and Bílek (2018) elucidate that:
Organisations change over time, not just in terms of their strategies, but also in their leadership, structure, innovativeness and many other areas. Most of these changes are subtle from the perspective of the overall life – the existence of the organisation. (p. 2)
Change, not stability, is the natural order of things in the global environment of the present day. Therefore, organisations must incorporate change and stability to facilitate innovation and efficacy. It enables the organisation to become predictable, avoiding stagnation and ultimately achieving its growth and ageing-related objectives (Austin-Roberson 2009:35). The ‘change management’ method permits the business to progress through the three stages of change, namely ‘adapting to change, controlling the change and effecting the change’ (Hao & Yazdanifard 2015:2, 3). This demonstrates that OLCs can successfully steer a business in competitive markets and rapid growth environments when implemented effectively.
Secondly, churches plan and establish objectives. Organisational life cycle is a valuable tool for ensuring the structural planning of an organisation. Ahmed (2013:450) acknowledges that an organisation’s overall operational system must be explicit enough to ‘specify the structure, strategy, style, and critical conditions for its development’. A well-defined road map for an organisation is essential because it provides a measure of predictability regarding the organisation’s future course and establishes operational parameters. When an organisation has a clear plan, it provides a structural system upon which other crucial conditions for its development can be built. It functions as a compass to indicate the organisation’s direction.
Thirdly, it is observed that churches experience growth. According to Hanks (1990:1), organisations undergo a progression of discrete phases, each distinguished by a distinct configuration of contextual, strategic and structural attributes. During the initial stages of an organisation, there are typically minimal or non-existent formal systems in place. The planning and control process is frequently carried out impromptu and intuitively. According to Hanks (1990:1), the organisation’s founder holds a significant level of centralisation in decision-making processes. Ford (2011:2) asserts that this scenario undergoes a transformation when an organisation experiences an increase in complexity because of its expansion in size and workforce. The organisation is confronted with novel challenges that necessitate a proactive approach towards changes in its life cycle. Implementing novel tactics and organisational frameworks to address these alterations effectively is imperative. Rahimia and Fallah (2015:51) posit that attaining controllability and flexibility in an organisation necessitates the development of suitable strategies and adopting diverse policies to address specific situations effectively.
Consequently, an organisation must make the requisite modifications consistently. Each stage is essentially a battle for survival despite experiencing periods of stability, as Ford (2011:1) asserts that organisations are inherently unstable.
Fourthly, churches demonstrate the need for transformation. It is frequently requested if there are observable signs in OLC that indicate the organisation needs to transition to the subsequent stage. Hanks (1990:2) responds affirmatively to this query and provides 10 indicators that imply the necessity for organisational change:
- People feel that ‘there are not enough hours in the day’.
- People spend too much time ‘putting out fires’.
- People are not aware of what other people are doing.
- People lack understanding about where the firm is headed.
- There are too few good managers.
- People feel that ‘I have to do it myself if I want to get it done correctly’.
- Most people feel meetings are a waste of time.
- When plans are made, there is very little follow-up, so things just don’t get done.
- Some people feel insecure about their place in the firm.
- The firm continues to grow in sales but not in profits (Hanks 1990:1–2).
Timely identification of these indicators and appropriate action are paramount to affecting the necessary modifications for the church’s growth trajectory.
Fifthly, church attendance is declining. Organisations are not immune to crises. As with other organisations, churches face obstacles such as institutional and individual member tensions. We observe the rise and decline of businesses and organisations on occasion. This suggests that organisations, like biological organisms, experience OLC (Jirásek & Bílek 2018:2). In crises, OLC strategies are applicable. The research conducted by Lacerda (2019:192) on the reasons for the survival of Portuguese companies during the 2008 global economic recession is one such notable example. Portuguese corporations focused on mitigating an organisation’s negative social impacts during the financial crisis. They began by identifying the major organisational social elements that negatively impact organisations and people and then constructed barriers against them to function as ‘shock absorbers’ for the negative social impact. The three main organisational social elements identified and mitigated were mistrust in organisational life, future uncertainty and toxic emotions in people (Lacerda 2019:190). Thus, identifying and proactively applying this OLC strategy helped mitigate the organisation’s constraints during the crisis.
Sixthly, churches need relevant leadership. Organisational life cycle theory and management practices can assist in revealing an appropriate leadership style for a particular stage the church might be at. Al-maaitah (2021) contends that organisational success or failure is directly linked to the leadership style that the organisation employs. He ascribes, among others, such aspects as unmotivated employees, high employee turnover, absenteeism, dissatisfaction and inappropriate behaviours to inappropriate leadership style. He further argues that the opposite is equally valid (2021:772). This shows how cardinal OLC theory approaches can assist in noticing that the organisation needs some changes to continue smooth operations and management.
Seventhly, churches must adhere to sound management principles. Efficient management is essential for the optimal functioning of churches. The practical and efficient management of the various parts, contributions and allocated resources within the church organisation, metaphorically referred to as the body of Christ, is crucial for realising its intended goals and visions (Oosthuizen & Lategan 2015:554). Knowledge of OLC management approaches and appropriate application of the established organisational design principles can significantly improve the church’s management challenges. This is an imperative requirement, especially in our era of advanced technology and a market-driven economy. Utilising management principles and systems, the church must strive to remain relevant to meet the contemporary requirements of its members, as it cannot afford to fall behind.
These principles, derived from the OLC theory, provide churches with a comprehensive and structured approach to managing their growth and development effectively. This approach addresses both the spiritual and organisational dimensions of church life. The OLC theory outlines key phases of development that an organisation, including a church, goes through, from inception to maturity and beyond. By understanding and applying these principles, church leaders can better navigate the challenges and opportunities that arise at each stage of the church’s lifecycle.
In a dynamic and evolving environment, the church must function as a community of believers and as a resilient institution capable of adapting to the changing needs of its members and the broader society. This dual focus ensures that the church remains relevant and impactful. On the spiritual side, the church nurtures its congregation’s faith, values and spiritual growth. On the organisational side, the church needs to implement effective management practices, strategic planning and innovative solutions to address practical challenges and seize new opportunities.
For instance, in the initial stages of a church’s development, the focus might be on establishing a solid foundation, creating a welcoming community and setting clear mission and vision statements. As the church grows, it may need to develop more sophisticated structures and systems to manage larger congregations, diverse programmes and outreach initiatives. This could involve adopting new technologies, expanding leadership teams and enhancing financial stewardship.
Furthermore, as societal dynamics evolve, churches must be prepared to address social issues, engage in community development and advocate for justice and equity. This requires a proactive approach to change management, continuous learning and a willingness to innovate. By doing so, churches can sustain their growth and play a transformative role in their communities.
Ultimately, the effective application of OLC principles helps churches avoid stagnation, maintain stability and foster continuous improvement. It enables them to be agile and responsive to their congregation’s needs while staying true to their core mission and values. In this way, churches can thrive as both spiritual havens and dynamic institutions, positively impacting individuals and society as a whole.
Conclusion
The article highlights that a proper understanding of the church necessitates a dual perspective as it embodies human (organisational) and divine (spiritual) characteristics. This is an instance of an antinomic truth that necessitates simultaneous affirmation. It is imperative to recognise and effectively handle the existing tension without it constituting a contradiction. Moreover, the church, being an organised entity, cannot evade the significance of adhering to sound management principles and practices to fulfil its divine purpose. The church is widely recognised as possessing distinctive attributes that set it apart from other organisations. However, it also exhibits similarities in its organisational structure, functional operations and overall organisation. Hence, it is imperative for religious institutions, particularly nascent and thriving ones, to comprehend the importance of adhering to the duality of the church, as it bears substantial pragmatic consequences on the functioning of the community church. The church is widely recognised as a distinctive entity with unique attributes that set it apart from other organisations. However, it also exhibits similarities in structure, function and organisation compared to other entities. The effective management of an organisation is imperative for successfully fulfilling its divinely ordained purpose, necessitating adherence to established principles and practices of management.
Acknowledgements
This article is partially based on the author’s thesis entitled ‘An organisational life cycle (OLC) perspective on church survival within the Reformed Baptist Movement of Zambia (RBmZ)’ for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Pastoral Studies at the North-West University, with Supervisor Prof.V Magezi, on May 2023. It is available here: https://repository.nwu.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10394/42192/Sichula_OP.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=1.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
Authors’ contributions
O.S, P.N. and V.M all contributed equally to this research article.
Ethical considerations
This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
Funding information
The research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are that of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors and the publisher.
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