Abstract
Historically, Christianity wielded authority over virtue, condemning African ethics. Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), defined by digitals that transform intimacy, questions Pentecostal sexual ethics – generating contradictions between dogma and technoscape. This study investigates how Nicene Creed doctrines can help Pentecostals develop a paradigm for handling sexuality in 4IR-driven Africa. The study examines Pentecostalism in Africa, particularly South Africa, where tensions between indigenous sexual ethics, colonial Christianity and technological innovation present theological concerns. The study utilises a historical-theological approach, hermeneutically examining primary and secondary sources – combining a historical analysis of the Nicene Creed, examining indigenous sexuality perspectives and a theological critique of digital impact on sexual ethics. The findings show that Greco-Roman philosophy and colonial beliefs continue to influence Pentecostal sexual ethics, dismissing indigenous African perspectives. The Nicene Creed offers theological resources constructing an integrated approach, prioritising embodiment while tackling digital issues. A rebuilt Pentecostal theology of sexuality based on Nicene principles and African philosophy can offer a comprehensive approach to affirming immanence while evaluating technological developments. Subsequently, providing pastoral care, ethics and community-building resources.
Contribution: This study adds to theological discourse, connecting traditional creeds with techno-challenges, offering a decolonial perspective and providing resources for Pentecostals navigating sexual ethics in digitally mediated environments.
Keywords: Fourth Industrial Revolution; Nicene Creed; Pentecostal theology, decolonisation, African sexuality, digital intimacy; Theological anthropology; pneumatology.
Introduction
The combination of Pentecostal theology, African cultural circumstances and digitech produces a compelling setting for theological exploration of human sexuality. Pentecostal theology emphasises purity, holiness and Spirit-led living; although, its teachings on sexuality frequently mirror historical Christian traditions influenced by colonial morality, excluding Indigenous African perspectives (Mittelstadt 2024:308). This theological quandary has exacerbated by the introduction of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) technologies such as social networking, online dating platforms, virtual reality and artificial intelligence (AI), profoundly altering how humans create and foster relationships, and express sexual identity.
The Nicene Creed, which is celebrating its 1700th year, offers a historically grounded theological resource for confronting modern concerns about sexual ethics. It affirms incarnation, embodiment and the work of the Holy Spirit providing concepts that can help Pentecostals respond to digitally mediated sexuality. When approached critically from a decolonial vantage point, this creedal base provides a potential for restoring African sexual ideologies historically suppressed by missionary Christianity. This article investigates how theological concepts embodied in the Nicene Creed can help Pentecostals reimagine sexual ethics responsive to African cultural contexts and technological advances.
Exploring the impact of Greco-Roman and colonial Christian perceptions on Pentecostal sexual ethics, the Nicene Creed and the African framework on sexuality, this study seeks to propose a decolonised theological response to the evolving realities of human sexuality in the digital age. Subsequently, the study contributes to the development of contextually relevant theological frameworks that uphold fundamental Christian principles while addressing the complexities of human sexuality in digitally mediated African contexts.
This study takes a historical-theological approach, triangulating multiple source materials to create an integrated framework for Pentecostal sexual ethics in digital situations. Primary sources include the Nicene Creed (325 CE, revised 381 CE), examining its historical context and theological affirmations of embodiment through patristic writings and conciliar documents; ethnographic and anthropological studies documenting Vhavenda sexual practices and indigenous knowledge systems, particularly initiation rituals and non-penetrative sexual education; and contemporary Pentecostal doctrinal statements, sermons and pastoral guidance on sexuality. These sources are examined via a decolonial hermeneutical lens, which critically evaluates power relations in theological discourse, detects colonial impositions on African sexuality and discovers areas of constructive conversation between creedal orthodoxy and indigenous wisdom. The analytical approach prioritises embodied spirituality as a conceptual bridge between two traditions, illustrating how the Nicene affirmation of incarnation and African holistic anthropology might help solve the digital fragmentation of human sexuality.
Deconstructing Pentecostal sexual ethics: Colonial legacies and Greco-Roman influences
Pentecostalism, as a Spirit-driven and experiential movement, emphasises purity and sanctity. Conversely, its approach to sexuality reflects a combination of literal biblical interpretations, holiness doctrines influenced by colonial morality and Greco-Roman philosophical underpinnings. Nevertheless, this study argues for a contextualised ethical paradigm based on Nicene orthodoxy while confronting European epistemic dominance in sexuality narratives. The biblical creation narratives provide a foundational perspective on sexuality, highlighting divine purpose, complementarity and procreation as fundamental to human relationships. In the context of the 4IR and its technological disruptions, especially within Africa, there is a growing necessity to reconceptualise Pentecostal sexual ethics to address modern realities informed by the Nicene Creed. This section explores these foundational influences and their implications for Pentecostal sexual ethics.
Pentecostals regard scripture as divinely authoritative, often interpreting it literally under the claim of being ‘Spirit-led’ (Nel 2023:10). One prominent example is the interpretation of Genesis 1 and 2, which forms the basis of Christian sexual teachings. Longman (2019) highlights how these passages shape doctrinal understandings of sexuality. However, such literal interpretations have led to misconceptions within Pentecostal and broader Christian sexual ethics.
Genesis 1–11, articulating early biblical sexual ethics, is widely regarded as mythological (Hendel 2021:129). While acknowledging its mythic elements, Hendel paradoxically asserts that these passages convey divine revelation. Genesis 1, traditionally understood as the chronological ‘beginning’, was composed during the Babylonian exile, bearing striking similarities to the Babylonian creation myth, the Enuma Elish (Smith-Christopher 2024:13). Consequently, the phrase ‘in the beginning’ in Genesis 1 is not a literal point of origin but rather a theological construct.
Maselesele (2025) underscores the theological implications of this mythological perspective:
Interpreting the early chapters of Genesis – covering creation, Eve’s recorded initial conception, and the fall – as a chronological sequence of events rather than myth leads to erroneous conclusions among theologians. Such a literal interpretation is profoundly misleading. (p. 32)
Despite acknowledging Genesis 1 and 2 as mythic constructs, these narratives convey a fundamental theological truth that God created humanity as sexual beings. The command to ‘be fruitful and multiply’ (Gn 1:28) reflects this intrinsic aspect of human nature. This language is more comprehensible to the myth’s intended audience – primarily children – than a direct reference to sexual intercourse.
Pentecostals uphold monogamous marriage against polygamy as a lifelong covenant, solely dissolvable by death (Burgess 2025:8). Genesis 2:24 is frequently cited in support of monogamy. Contrariwise, polygamy is natural in Africa and entrenched throughout the Old Testament, with King David’s multiple wives as God’s blessings (Malalamavhi et al. 2024:404). Ademiluka (2020:16) further argues that neither Jesus nor Paul endorsed monogamy through their references to Genesis 2:24. Pentecostal teachings confine sexual activity in marriage, with premarital sex, adultery and fornication deemed transgressions against divine design; yet, Pentecostals engage in such activities (Ademiluka 2023:2455). Ademiluka blames the transgressions on the absence of comprehensive sex teachings. Adultery includes divorce and remarriage (Agbeusi 2021; Burgess 2025:29).
Moreover, Pentecostals often frame sex as a conduit for spiritual transmission, claiming that sexual relations can transfer evil spirits (Agbeusi 2021). Certain sub-Saharan African Neo-Pentecostal pastors have co-opted sex as a means of demon exorcism, engaging in exploitative and perversive practices such as sucking women’s breasts and having sex with congregants as part of supposed deliverance rituals (Kaunda & Towani 2020:15). In correlation with the absence of comprehensive teachings, women are rendered vulnerable and objects of exploitation.
Interestingly, in South Africa and Zimbabwe, Genesis 1:27–28 has been employed to marginalise lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning and intersex (LGBTQI+) individuals within Pentecostal communities (Sewapa 2020:281). The LGBTQI+ community is frequently condemned as sinful, spiritually deviant and demonic, facing divine judgement (Machingura & Dzinoreva 2022:68; Sewapa 2020:281). Pentecostals in Nigeria, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe have actively lobbied for stringent anti-LGBTQ+ legislation (Ukah 2020:305). Endeavours influence such to reinforce sexuality as a covenantal bond within the creation order.
Beyond dichotomy: Spirit-body integration in Pentecostal sexual theology
According to Ngwena (2024:1), Pentecostal pneumatology is a dynamic experience of the Holy Spirit, engaging believers in a transformative encounter with God that reshapes their lives. Central to this framework is the concept of embodiment, which perceives the human body as a space for divine interaction. Pentecostals maintain that the human body serves both as an abode of the Spirit and a medium for spiritual expression (Mossière 2013:58). As the Holy Spirit takes charge of the body, it manifests through glossolalia, healing and prophecy (Rojas 2024:870). Rojas further asserts that these manifestations demonstrate the body’s ability to perform spiritual acts and communicate spiritual realities.
Despite this holistic view of spiritual transformation, Pentecostals often hesitate to acknowledge the Holy Spirit’s role in guiding human sexuality rather than the body (Stone 2021:91). Whereas the Holy Spirit could enable believers to exercise self-control, resist evil and find joy in intimacy. If the Holy Spirit transforms all aspects of human life, it should also actively shape believers’ sexual ethics. This perspective suggests that a Spirit-filled individual, under divine guidance, can experience sexuality in a manner aligned with God’s original intention.
Pentecostal theology is rooted in the experiential work of the Holy Spirit, facilitated through vibrant worship rituals that necessitate full human and dramatic involvement (Ngwena 2024:1; Parsitau & Van Klinken 2020). Pentecostals believe that evidence of the Holy Spirit’s presence is demonstrated through baptism in the Spirit, with glossolalia as a primary manifestation (Rojas 2024:869). The baptism of the Holy Spirit grants access to spiritual gifts and serves as a mark of conversion (Rojas 2024:869, 874). The body, which is the temple of the Holy Spirit, is also the house of sexual ecstasy. Yet, as per Paulin’s theology, it is chaotic and necessitates rigorous discipline to achieve success (1 Cor 9:27). However, the dichotomisation of a human being into body and spirit constantly at war shapes the Pentecostal theology of sex. Subsequently, Pentecostals devote considerable effort to preserving its sanctity, often focusing on eradicating sin and preparing the body for the divine presence (Kellogg 2023:29). Sexuality is subject to intense scrutiny, with premarital abstinence strictly enforced and early marriage encouraged (Kellogg 2023:30; Nadar & Jodamus 2019:1). Influenced by John Wesley’s theology of sanctification, some Pentecostals maintain that Spirit-baptised believers are immune to sin (McClish 2020), shaping a rigid approach to sexual ethics.
Historically, sexuality posed a significant challenge for the Church, with discussions often limited to condemning sin rather than fostering a constructive dialogue (Maselesele 2025:v). This led to a paradox within Pentecostalism, where believers struggle to reconcile strict sexual ethics with their natural sexual desires (Nadar & Jodamus 2019:6). Seeking a balance between spiritual commitment and sexual fulfilment, some Pentecostals inadvertently foster hypocrisy or face the risk of losing members disillusioned by unrealistic moral expectations. A notable consequence is the disproportionate burden placed on women. Women’s bodies are frequently framed as sources of temptation, while men are charged with resisting their allure (Thornton 2018:140). This dynamic contributes to negative sexual self-esteem, decreased sexual satisfaction and persistent feelings of guilt among women (Yoshimura 2018:35). This imbalance undermines the mutual fulfilment intended in Christian marriage, as gendered expectations hinder open and affirming expressions of intimacy (West 2020).
Pedagogical failures: Pentecostal taboos and the information void
Sex and sexuality are still considered taboo within Pentecostal communities, leaving many believers, particularly youth, without comprehensive guidance (Kaunda & Towani 2020:193). As a result, young Pentecostals navigate sexual challenges independently, increasing their vulnerability to misinformation and unhealthy sexual experiences. Studies in Zimbabwe highlight a shift, with some Pentecostal ministers addressing sexuality more openly through social media platforms. However, this remains a contentious issue, as religious and cultural norms dictate that discussions on sexuality occur in specific, discreet settings facilitated by qualified individuals (Maselesele 2025:4; Sipeyiye & Mpofu 2022:1132).
Remarkably, the emergence of the ‘Sex Gospel’ – a theological approach that integrates biblical principles with discussions on sexuality – seeks to bridge this gap. Defined as ‘the good news of Christ on the subject of sexuality intended to guide youth on sexuality and to perfect the sexual skills of Christian couples’ (Sipeyiye & Mpofu 2022:1127), this perspective advocates for a more open pedagogical approach to sexual ethics. Its absence led to challenges such as early marriages and subsequently marital dissatisfaction (Maselesele 2025:88; Nadar & Jodamus 2019:1). Hence, premarital counselling presents an opportunity to address these concerns; yet, many Pentecostals limit counselling to clergy who lack formal training in sexual pedagogy (Kgatle & Spaumer 2023:1; Maselesele 2025:2). This oversight reflects a broader issue in Pentecostalism – theological pedagogy of sexuality, a paradox where sex remains both central to human experience and primarily ignored in doctrinal teaching.
Greco-Roman philosophy on Pentecostal sexual ethics
Pentecostals are often branded as Biblicists and Spirit-led. However, their theology has not been entirely cleansed of Greek and Roman philosophical frameworks. Platonic dualism, which elevates the spiritual realm degrading the body (Quintas 2023:1), remains a core element of Pentecostal praxis. Consequently, Pentecostals in Africa hold a concerning view of sexual desire, deeming it divergent from spiritual purity. Notably, contemporary philosophers, including Quintas, are revisiting and challenging Platonic dualism. Moreover, a Greek philosophical influence embedded in Pentecostal theology is stoicism, underscoring self-control as essential for attaining an esteemed destiny. Pentecostals preach self-control over sexual desire, often imposing strict regulations emphasising sexual abstinence (Carpenedo 2024:216). Stanley (2020:125), notes that churches commonly teach young people that abstaining from premarital sex will be rewarded with lifelong, fulfilling marriages and excellent marital sex experiences.
Silenced wisdom: Indigenous African sexual ethics and decolonial recovery
Shingange’s (2025) understanding of African sexuality aligns with the African worldview, which sees a human being as an integrated entity of body and Spirit (Maselesele 2025:26), a sharp contrast with the Pentecostal dichotomisation of human nature:
In Africa, marriage and sexuality have cultural, spiritual, and religious intersectionality. However, the advent of the missionary-colonial enterprise reconstructed these concepts, imposing Christianity and Civilization agendas. Africans were compelled to abandon their indigenous views on marriage and sexuality to comply with the prescripts of Christianity, baptism, and church membership. Missionaries undermined African perspectives, rendering them as demonic, backward, and barbaric. This narrative continues to shape Pentecostal views within the contemporary African context, creating a myriad of challenges for both Africans and Christianity in Africa. (Shingange 2025:1)
Missionaries imposed Western Christianity, condemning African sexual practices without offering meaningful alternatives (Shingange 2025:1). Consequently, African Christianity remains entangled in numerous unresolved tensions (Shingange 2025:1).
European missionaries promulgated abstinence outside of wedlock. While Vhavenda culture strongly emphasised virginity, providing mechanisms for addressing sexual desires. Virginity testing was a respected tradition, ensuring virginity until marriage. However, Vhavenda culture also acknowledged human sexual needs, allowing for controlled, non-penetrative sexual practices as taught during the initiation schools (Daswa 2018:77). These practices imparted emotional intelligence and responsible sexual behaviour (Mulea & Choeni 2017:323). African Pentecostals derive their theology of sex and marriage from Genesis 3:7, which depicts Adam and Eve’s realisation of their nakedness, thus enforcing strict dress codes (Thornton 2018:140). Dressing codes are strange within African societies, as they had intrinsic structures regulating sexuality. One Presbyterian missionary among the Vhavenda of South Africa once proclaimed that ‘the people were all but naked’. As if their conversion depended on adopting European clothing, at his departure, he celebrated that at least women had begun wearing clothes on their shoulders (Maselesele 2025:21).
However, modern challenges have emerged, with divorcees struggling with sexual pressure, sometimes describing it as traumatic (Mulovhedzi, Masoga & Mudau 2018:96). In African societies, divorce was rare, as families would intervene extensively to prevent it, even in cases of sexual dysfunction (Metz 2021:1; Munyai 2021:120). Pentecostal theology rejects polygamy – a long-standing African ethical norm – and has stripped communities of indigenous responses to sexual challenges. Research indicates that polygamy, within the framework of Vhuthu philosophy, has been effective in controlling the spread of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), caring for widows and mitigating extramarital affairs (Mulaudzi, Chinouya & Ngunyulu 2015:24; Ndou-Mammbona & Mavhandu-Mudzusi 2022:7). In contrast, Pentecostals encourage singles to focus on Bible study, prayer and service to God (Mulovhedzi et al. 2018:100). However, this raises fundamental questions: Can such activities soothe sexual passions? Erase God-given desires? or Persuade God to undo His creation?
The intrusion of European epistemologies silenced and ignored African theological voices, forming sexuality constructs in the continent and leaving a void that either blindly accepts imported moral standards or upholds precolonial ethics. Similarly, the advent of Christianity among Vhavenda, fronted the obliteration of initiation schools, which are custodians of sex pedagogy, defining them as heathen, unreasonable, not systematic and regressive (Maselesele 2025:26). Consequently, the theological voice is void of the Vhavenda aura.
Theological resources for digital engagement: The Nicene Creed’s embodied vision
The 1700-year-old Nicene Creed summarises essential Christian doctrines, affirming the unity of the Holy Father, Christ and the Holy Spirit in fulfilling God’s divine purpose. Although the Creed is absent in most Pentecostal liturgy, it is rooted in scripture and, therefore, fundamental to Pentecostal beliefs (Augustine 2025:4). Consequently, the Creed’s assertion of Christ’s incarnation provides a theological foundation for engaging human embodiment and sexuality (McFarland 2019:130). It thus provides Pentecostals with a theological basis to engage deeply embodied spirituality, ethics and sexuality. Furthermore, its emphasis on the Church and the Spirit aligns with Pentecostal pneumatology (Rojas 2024:870).
Nicene theology challenges the notion that the body is inferior. God created humankind in His image (Gn 1:26–27), and according to the Nicene Creed, Christ incarnated in that same image. Thus, sexuality, as part of God’s creation, should not be deemed impure but sacred.
The Nicene Creed affirms the sanctity of human embodiment, countering the fragmentation of identity in digital spaces and the increasing commodification of human relationships (Sonea 2024:324). Modern technologies, such as AI and digital avatars, challenge traditional understandings of human nature (Burden & Savin-Baden 2019). These changes necessitate theological reflection on human dignity and ethical decision-making. The Creed’s emphasis on unity provides critical insights for fostering authentic relationships in an increasingly individualistic digital age (McLarnon 2020:98).
Although classical Christian theology views the body as the temple of the Holy Spirit, digital spaces challenge the relevance of bodily presence in spiritual and interpersonal relationships. This mode of engagement risks reinforcing an anthropological dualism that separates flesh from Spirit. However, the belief in resurrection affirms the significance of the body, reminding believers that physical presence, embodied relationships and tangible environments are vital for spiritual growth (Massumi 2021).
Kahsay (2021:97) asserts that the Church, empowered by the Holy Spirit, must engage with evolving societal landscapes, remaining faithful to the Gospel. The shift to the 4IR necessitates the Church familiarising itself with emerging technological paradigms to maintain relevance. The Nicene Creed provides a theological foundation for such contextual engagement:
The Holy Spirit is the giver and sustainer of life, creator, revealer, companion, sender, and gift-giver. He is the source of spiritual power for believers and the Church. The Holy Spirit speaks, guides, calls, and empowers. Scripture attests that the pervasive presence of the Holy Spirit fills both the background and foreground of God’s action in the world through the Church. (Kahsay 2021:97)
Against this backdrop, the Nicene Creed is relevant for engaging with the digitised sexual world and developing a theology that addresses the challenges of the 4IR. The Creed’s emphasis on Christ’s incarnation highlights the unity of divine and human nature, challenging dualistic views of sexuality. Grannum and Irwin-Diehl (2022:458) assert that sexuality is an essential component of human life – both physically and spiritually – and is a treasured gift from God. Therefore, sexual acts should not be demonised but rather understood as a Spirit-led response to a divine call. Sexuality, then, is God at work in His creation.
African indigenous sexual ethics and the Nicene Creed
Whereas the Nicen Creed emphasises Christ’s incarnation, highlighting the unity of divine and human nature, challenging dualistic views of sexuality, the African worldview sees a human being as an integrated entity of body and Spirit (Maselesele 2025:26). In both the Nicene Creed and the African indigenous ethics, a human being is an entity and cannot be separated not even during sex. As alluded to by Grannum and Irwin-Diehl (2022:458), sex is essential for both the spirit and the body. Therefore, the Nicene embodiment and the African worldview present Pentecostals with a double-aged resource to facilitate sexuality.
Digital disruptions: Fourth Industrial Revolution technologies and the transformation of intimacy
Digital theology examines how digitech affects faith, practice and community formation (Dixon 2015:25). It explores an era where humans, computers and robots interact continuously, presenting both challenges and opportunities for the Christian community in worship, evangelism and theological discourse (Berger 2017:19; Bingaman 2023:10). Within this framework, this study examines how digitech influences Pentecostal sexual ethics and doctrines.
Virtual sacred spaces: Embodied worship in disembodied environments
Digitech provides virtual worship spaces, subsequently challenging the embodied nature of Pentecostal rituals while enabling global connectivity and outreach (Chizhande 2024:98). Chizhande (2024:99) concludes that digitech offers flexibility into time and space for attendance, an opportunity to tap from other denominations connectivity and exposure to contrasting theologies. While Pentecostals preach sanctity before marriage, Izang (2025) on Facebook Reels declares that a ‘father’ advised not to marry a man one has not had sex with. Such a teaching accessible to both young and old Pentecostals becomes a challenge to Pentecostal dogma. Nonetheless, digital theology must address how technology-mediated practices align with or diverge from traditional understandings of the Spirit’s work on sex. This study critically evaluates how digitech affects Pentecostal authority, identity and theological reflection on sexual ethics.
The Church’s historical silence on comprehensive teachings regarding sex, attraction and intimacy left members vulnerable to digital influences (Maselesele 2025:37). In contrast, within the four walls, Pentecostals define sex ethics; however, digital platforms, Christian and non-Christian are increasingly assuming this role – sometimes promoting distorted views of sexuality (Maselesele 2025:2, 21). While Christian sex teachings are rooted in scripture and historical tradition (Yarhouse & Tan 2025), they have often been misinterpreted because of Victorian-era moral biases (Westheimer & Mark 2020:3).
Contemporary influences on Pentecostal sexual ethics
Modern influences such as academia, politics and social media introduce tensions between traditional perspectives and evolving societal norms (Lindsey 2020). Debates have emerged around same-sex relationships, gender identity, reproductive rights and sexual satisfaction (Maselesele 2025:43; Thornton 2018:133). Such debates are demonic and cannot be discussed within the Pentecostal circles. Societal attitudes towards intimacy and sexuality have shifted, necessitating theological responses to virtual relationships, cybersex, and social media influences.
Virtual relationships and digital intimacy
The 4IR has reshaped relationships, enabling individuals to form connections beyond physical constraints (Gottschalk 2010:501). While these virtual spaces provide emotional, mental and physical support, they also lead to misunderstandings, misrepresentation and emotional detachment (Gottschalk 2010:502). John (2020:245) reveals that young Pentecostals are not interested in online dating sites and are foreign in their denominational discussions; nonetheless, Christian platforms are emerging, claiming to be God’s tools to facilitate compatibility among Christians. The emerging Christian dating sites present a challenge on how membership is scrutinised to limit it only to Christians. Furthermore, traditional notions of intimacy and fidelity are challenged by emotional adultery (Giard 2021). There is a growing need for sexual literacy to help Pentecostals navigate these ethical complexities.
Digital ethical frontiers: Navigating cybersex, social media and algorithmic intimacy
Technological advancements facilitated cybersex and digital intimacy (Kwok & Wescott 2020:657). While cybersex allows individuals to explore their sexuality in a private setting, it also raises ethical and psychological concerns, including sexual dysfunction, increased risky behaviour and relational dissatisfaction (Banerjee & Rao 2021:15; McGlaston 2016; Nordqvist & Exner 2020:33). Hyper-realistic pornographic content and deepfake technology pose significant risks to personal identities. Pentecostal theology must address these issues, promoting sexual ethics grounded in biblical principles and pastoral care.
Social media influences sexual attitudes and behaviours (Landry et al. 2017). Platforms such as Instagram, TikTok and Snapchat allow individuals to construct and explore various sexual and romantic identities. Influencers commodify sexuality, normalising transactional relationships and altering perceptions of intimacy (Gillman 2024:21). While social media fosters discussions on consent, sexual health and gender equality, it also contributes to harmful behaviours such as sexting, online harassment and unrealistic beauty standards (Maselesele 2025:43). The Church must respond by providing biblically grounded teachings counteracting these influences.
Towards an integrated Theological response: Creedal wisdom for digital ethics
Stiegemeyer (2023:13) explores how the Nicene Creed, affirming the incarnation, can inform ethical responses to digital sexuality. The Creed underscores the sanctity and the unity of body and Spirit. The African philosophy of Vhuthu aligns with this perspective, emphasising the integrated nature of human existence. As digitech redefines intimacy, Pentecostal theology must reaffirm biblical principles of loyalty, purity and mutual respect in cyberspaces (Ngwena 2024:1; Parsitau & Van Klinken 2020).
Cyberspaces have expanded access to sexual information, challenging traditional ethics (Campbell & Garner 2016). While cyberspaces can facilitate healthy discussions, they also present risks such as cyberbullying, sextortion and non-consensual sexting (Gámez-Guadix et al. 2022:789). The ethical implications of monetising intimacy through platforms such as OnlyFans further highlight the need for a robust Pentecostal response (Sætre 2023:74).
Cyberspaces have blurred public and private sexual activity, necessitating renewed theological engagement with digital ethics (Walsh & Baker 2017:1185). The introduction of sex toys, including dildos, vibrators and sex robots, poses a deep theological debate. The eradication of polygamy, for example, is currently replaced with infidelity-inducing marital distress, divorce and absent parenting (Ngwasheng & Mbedzi 2024:133). Nonetheless, with the rise of technology, should singles respond incognito to sexual desires through such technology? How about Pastor’s spouses when pastors are engaged in extended periods of prayer and fasting?
Conclusion
The Nicene Creed reaffirms the sacredness of human embodiment and community, providing a theological foundation for confronting sexuality concerns in the 4IR. When combined with African traditional philosophies emphasising communal values and holistic anthropology, this creedal framework provides Pentecostals with a more contextually appropriate approach to sexual ethics in digitally mediated situations.
This integrated strategy has numerous practical applications in Pentecostal communities. Firstly, Pentecostals can create educational resources supporting embodied sexuality, while offering crucial counsel on digital technology, thereby addressing the study’s observed deficit in complete sexual education. Secondly, pastoral counsellors can apply this approach to specific difficulties such as digital intimacy, online relationship formation and cybersex, using a theological lens that neither demonises nor uncritically accepts technology. Thirdly, Pentecostal groups can intentionally build physical and digital places for open debates about sexuality within a framework that respects both Christian tradition and African cultural circumstances.
However, there are a few limitations to consider. The historical and cultural difference between Nicene formulations and modern African Pentecostalism raises hermeneutical issues that this work has only begun to investigate. Furthermore, the diversity of Pentecostalism and African cultural traditions means that any proposed framework will necessitate extensive contextualisation. The rapid expansion of digital technologies also means that precise ethical principles may swiftly become obsolete, needing constant theological reflection rather than permanent pronouncements. Furthermore, the practical implementation of this paradigm confronts significant opposition from established theological stances and power structures within Pentecostal groups, which may regard engagement with indigenous perspectives with distrust.
Despite these limitations, this study adds to a growing theological discussion that strives to acknowledge the physical aspect of human sexuality while critically interacting with digital technology. As Pentecostal communities grapple with the complex interconnections of faith, culture and technology, this integrated approach provides resources for establishing sexual ethics that are both historically and contextually relevant. Future research should look into specific case studies of Pentecostal communities dealing with these issues, the reception of such frameworks among various stakeholders and the development of more detailed ethical guidelines for emerging technologies such as AI and virtual reality, which will continue to reshape human sexuality in the coming years.
Acknowledgements
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
Authors’ contributions
K.M.M. established the conceptual framework connecting Pentecostal sexual ethics with the Nicene Creed in the context of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. In addition, he contributed to the foundational research on church teachings regarding sexuality and their implications for African contexts. N.M. contributed expertise on the African cultural context and decolonial perspective particularly the Vhavenda perspective on sexuality and ethics. M.E.M. contributed to the theological framework, particularly regarding the integration of Pentecostal pneumatology with digital ethics.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. The article does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder or agency, or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.
References
Ademiluka, S.O., 2020, ‘Genesis 2:24 as basis for monogamous Christian marriage: Illustrations from Nigeria’, Journal For Semitics 29(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.25159/2663-6573/7185
Ademiluka, S.O., 2023, ‘“[A]nd when I Came to Her I Found She Was Not A Virgin”: A contextual re-reading of Deuteronomy 22: 13–21 among Nigerian Christians’, Verbum et Ecclesia 44(1), 2455. https://doi.org/10.4102/ve.v44i1.2455
Agbeusi, B.J., 2021, ‘An examination of sexual immorality among Nigerian Christian Youths; Mountain of Fire and Miracles Ministries (MFM), Lagos as a case study’, Unpublished mini dissertation.
Augustine, D.C., 2025, ‘Reading the creed in the light of Pentecost: An Eastern European pneumatic reflection’, International Journal of Systematic Theology. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijst.12756
Banerjee, D. & Rao, T.S., 2021, ‘“# Intimacy” at times of COVID-19: The renewed impetus behind cybersex’, Journal of Psychosexual Health 3(1), 13–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/26318318211004397
Berger, T., 2017, @ Worship: Liturgical practices in digital worlds, Routledge, London.
Bingaman, K.A., 2023, ‘Religion in the digital age: An irreversible process’, Religions 14(1), 108. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14010108
Burden, D. & Savin-Baden, M., 2019, Virtual humans: Today and tomorrow, Chapman and Hall/CRC.
Burgess, R., 2025, ‘Pentecostal Christian’s influence on marital satisfaction and longevity’, Doctoral Dissertations and Projects. 6444, viewed n.d., from https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/6444.
Campbell, H.A. & Garner, S., 2016, Networked theology (engaging culture): Negotiating faith in digital culture, Baker Academic.
Carpenedo, M., 2024, ‘Cultivating a desire of one’s own: Religious change and sexuality among “Judaizing Evangelical” women in Brazil’, in S. Sharma, D. Llewellyn & S. Hawthorne (eds.), The Bloomsbury handbook of religion, gender and sexuality, p. 215, Bloomsbury Academic, London.
Chizhande, K., 2024, ‘An autoethnographic exploration of virtual worship: Exploring religious experience in cyberspace’, master’s thesis, University of Pretoria.
Daswa, T.J., 2018, ‘Rethinking the role of mahundwane as an educational game for Vhavenda Speaking Youth’, doctoral dissertation.
Diamond, M., 2009, ‘Pornography, public acceptance and sex related crime: A review’, International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 32(5), 304–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2009.06.004
Dixon, M.J., 2015, Digital media use and adolescent christian formation: A correlation study.
Gámez-Guadix, M., Mateos-Pérez, E., Wachs, S., Wright, M., Martínez, J. & Íncera, D., 2022, ‘Assessing image-based sexual abuse: Measurement, prevalence, and temporal stability of sextortion and nonconsensual sexting (“revenge porn”) among adolescents’, Journal of Adolescence 94(5), 789–799. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12064
Giard, A., 2021, ‘Can we fall in love with everything? Borderline forms of the amorous relation’, Terrain. Anthropologie & Sciences Humaines 75, 4–25. https://doi.org/10.4000/12wer
Gillman, C., 2024, ‘Lifestyle influencers: How the internalisation of neoliberal values contribute to the bodily regulation of women’, doctoral dissertation, Institute of Art, Design+ Technology.
Gottschalk, S., 2010, ‘The presentation of avatars in second life: Self and interaction in social virtual spaces’, Symbolic Interaction 33(4), 501–525. https://doi.org/10.1525/si.2010.33.4.501
Grannum, G.D. & Irwin-Diehl, R., 2022, ‘Re-membering body and spirit through spiritual practices of sexual wholeness’, Sexual and Relationship Therapy 37(3), 458–475. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681994.2021.1980207
Grant, J., 2015, Divine sex: A compelling vision for Christian relationships in a hypersexualized age, Brazos Press.
Hendel, R., 2021, ‘Sex, honor, and civilization in Genesis 1–11’, in T.M. Lemos, J.D. Rosenblum, K.B. Stern & D.S. Bullentine (eds.), With the loyal you show yourself loyal: Essays on relationships in The Hebrew Bible in Honor of Saul M. Olyan, vol. 42, p. 129, SBL Press, Atlanta.
Izang, S.K., 2025, It is not fornication, viewed 15 April 2025, from https://www.facebook.com/share/r/14jdhJVCXt/.
John, S.F., 2020, ‘“Virtual People” and matches made in heaven: The pitch of born-again dating platforms and Pentecostal attitude towards online dating’, in Genders, sexualities, and spiritualities in African Pentecostalism: ‘Your Body is a Temple of the Holy Spirit’, pp. 245–262.
Kahsay, T., 2021, ‘Theological education in the majority world: A Pentecostal perspective the role of the holy spirit in theological education’, Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 24(1), 97–111.
Kärkkäinen, V.M., 2018, Pneumatology: The holy spirit in ecumenical, international, and contextual perspective.
Kaunda, M.M. & Towani, J.Y., 2020, ‘An appraisal of Pentecostal children’s understanding of sex and sexuality’, in Genders, sexualities, and spiritualities in African Pentecostalism: ‘Your Body is a Temple of the Holy Spirit’, pp. 193–212.
Kellogg, C.R., 2023, When ‘a Haircut is Not Just a Haircut’: The embodied deconversions of former Pentecostal and holiness women.
Kgatle, M.S. & Spaumer, A., 2023, ‘Integrating professional counselling during marriage counselling within neo-Pentecostalism’, In Die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 57(1), 2920. https://doi.org/10.4102/ids.v57i1.2920
Kwok, I. & Wescott, A.B., 2020, ‘Cyberintimacy: A scoping review of technology-mediated romance in the digital age’, Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 23(10), 657–666. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2019.0764
Landry, M., Turner, M., Vyas, A. & Wood, S., 2017, ‘Social media and sexual behavior among adolescents: Is there a link? JMIR Public Health and Surveillance 3(2), e7149. https://doi.org/10.2196/publichealth.7149
Lindsey, L.L., 2020, Gender: Sociological perspectives, Routledge.
Longman, T.I., 2019, Confronting Old Testament controversies: Pressing questions about evolution, sexuality, history, and violence, Baker Books.
Machingura, F. & Dzinoreva, T., 2022, ‘Biology, curse, or sin’, in Religion and sexuality in Zimbabwe, pp. 61–77.
Malalamavhi, T., Mathebula, W., Mrubula-Ngwenya, G.S. & Lee, K.S., 2024, ‘“Give me a child or I die”: Sober Reflections on Polyandry and Polygyny within Mankweng Township, Limpopo Province of South Africa’, African Journal of Gender, Society & Development 13(3), 397.
Maselesele, K.M., 2025, ‘Church Teachings on Sex and its Implications on Marital Wellbeing: A Case of the Uniting Presbyterian Church in Thulamela, Limpopo Province, South Africa’, Unpublished Masters Dissertation, Univen.
Massumi, B., 2021, Parables for the virtual: Movement, affect, sensation, Duke University Press.
McClish, D., 2020, The holy spirit, sanctification, and sinless perfection.
McFarland, I.A., 2019, The word made flesh: A theology of the incarnation, John Knox Press, Westminster.
McGlaston, R., 2016, More than sex: Finding friendships in cybersexual wecamming communities.
McLarnon, J.M., 2020, ‘One’ and ‘I’: Dimensions of ritual unity and individuality in the liturgical practice of the Catholic Nicene Creed.
Metz, T., 2021, ‘Ubuntu: The good life’, in F. Maggino (ed.), Encyclopedia of quality of life and wellbeing research, pp. 1–5, Springer International Publishing, Cham.
Mittelstadt, M.W., 2024, ‘Called: A Pentecostal theology of vocation’, Spiritus: ORU Journal of Theology 9(2), 293–316. https://doi.org/10.31380/2573-6345.1373
Mossière, G., 2013, ‘Experience, subjectivity and performance: An anthropological approach to Pentecostal rituals based on the body’, in Understanding religious ritual, pp. 54–72.
Mulaudzi, F.M., Chinouya, M. & Ngunyulu, R.N., 2015, ‘Perceptions of the Vhavenda regarding the significance of IKS rituals and customs in women’s health: “The Other Side Of The Coin”’, Journal Of Social Sciences 44(1), 21–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2015.11893454
Mulea, S. & Choeni, K., 2017, ‘Female initiation as a preventative measure to teenage pregnancy: A reflection on Zimbabwe’s Vhavenda cultural practices’, in The African conundrum: Rethinking the trajectories of historical, cultural, philosophical and developmental experiences of Africa, pp. 323–342.
Mulovhedzi, T.P., Masoga, M.A. & Mudau, Z.D., 2018, ‘Sexual challenges (Khaedu Dzavhudzekani) affecting Vhavenda divorcees in a church context: Reflection on a case study of care and counselling within the reformed churches of South Africa In the Vhembe District’, Journal For Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences 6(2), 090–103.
Munyai, N.R., 2021, ‘Thalano mitani ya Vhavenda ho sedzwa mbingano dza Mvelele ya Tshivenda na ya tshikhreste’, Doctoral dissertation.
Nadar, S. & Jodamus, J., 2019, ‘“Sanctifying Sex”: Exploring “Indecent” sexual imagery in Pentecostal liturgical practices’, Journal For the Study of Religion 2019, 32(1). https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3027/2019/v32n1a5
Ndou-Mammbona, A.A. & Mavhandu-Mudzusi, A.H., 2022, ‘Could Vhavenda initiation schools be a panacea for HIV and AIDS management in the Vhembe district of South Africa?’, Curationis 45(1), 2356. https://doi.org/10.4102/curationis.v45i1.2356
Nel, M., 2023, ‘Vital distinctives of charismatic and Pentecostal Churches’ hermeneutics’, Stellenbosch Theological Journal 9(1), 1–19.
Ngwasheng, M.B. & Mbedzi, R.P., 2024, ‘Infidelity amongst young married couples: Suggestions for social work intervention’, Social Work/Maatskaplike Werk 60(1), 123–146. https://doi.org/10.15270/60-1-1255
Ngwena, P.D., 2024, ‘African Pentecostalism and ecological spirituality: Liturgy and supplication from a pneumatology perspective’, Pharos Journal of Theology 105, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.46222/pharosjot.105.322
Nordqvist, L. & Exner, A., 2020, ‘Send Nudes! Media preference choices for cybersex engagement in long-distance romantic relationships’, Master’s thesis, Institutionen för tillämpad informationsteknologi, viewed n.d., from http://hdl.handle.net/2077/66331.
Parsitau, D. & Van Klinken, A., 2020, ‘Pentecostal intimacies: Women and intimate citizenship in the ministry of repentance and holiness in Kenya’, in A. van Klinken & E. Obadare (eds.), Christianity, sexuality and citizenship in Africa, pp. 30–46, Routledge, London.
Quintas, A., 2023, ‘Degradation of the body in idealist–dualist philosophy’, Philosophies 8(2), 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies8020036
Rojas, F., 2024, ‘Ineffable tongues: An analysis of the notion of ineffability in Pentecostal Glossolalia’, Filozofia 79(8), 863–877. https://doi.org/10.31577/filozofia.2024.79.8.2
Sætre, J.B., 2023, ‘Performing sexuality, monetizing intimacy and branding the self – An analysis of onlyfans content creators and their interactions with subscribers’, Master’s thesis, University of Oslo.
Sewapa, T., 2020, ‘“Can a queer be born again?”: The experiences of the LGBTIQ+ Pentecostals at Grace Bible Church, Soweto’, in Genders, sexualities, and spiritualities in African Pentecostalism: ‘Your Body Is a Temple of The Holy Spirit’, pp. 281–303.
Shingange, T., 2025, ‘The missionary-colonial forms of marriages and sexualities within African Pentecostalism: A Sankofa-De-Colonial Perspective’, Religions 16(1), 74. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010074
Sipeyiye, M. & Mpofu, P., 2022, ‘Sex Gospel in Zimbabwe’s Pentecostal Christianity as a response to social change: The case of Apostle Kapandura and Mai Lucia Gunguwo’, Journal of Asian and African Studies 57(6), 1126–1140. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219096211046274
Smith-Christopher, D., 2024, Exile: History, interpretation, and theology, St Andrews Encyclopaedia of Theology.
Sonea, C., 2024, ‘The spirituality of the Nicene Creed and its missionary implications in the Parish Community’, International Review of Mission 113(2), 324–340. https://doi.org/10.1111/irom.12511
Stanley, O., 2020, ‘A personal encounter with purity culture: Evangelical Christian schooling in Aotearoa/New Zealand’, Women’s Studies Journal 34.
Stiegemeyer, S., 2023, ‘Theological anthropology for bioethics’, Dignitas 30(1), 13–21.
Stone, S.R., 2021, ‘Holy spirit, holy bodies?: Pentecostal spirituality, pneumatology and the politics of embodiment’, doctoral dissertation, University of Birmingham.
Thornton, B.J., 2018, ‘Victims of illicit desire: Pentecostal men of god and the specter of sexual temptation’, Anthropological Quarterly 91(1), 133–171. https://doi.org/10.1353/anq.2018.0004
Ukah, A., 2020, ‘Is homosexuality the eternal sin? A critique of pentecostal arguments against same-sex relations in Africa’, in Genders, sexualities, and spiritualities in African Pentecostalism: ‘Your Body Is a Temple of The Holy Spirit’, pp. 305–324.
Walsh, M.J. & Baker, S.A., 2017, ‘The selfie and the transformation of the public-private distinction’, Information, Communication & Society 20(8), 1185–1203. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2016.1220969
West, C., 2020, Our bodies tell god’s story: Discovering the divine plan for love, sex, and gender, Brazos Press.
Westheimer, R.K. & Mark, J., 2020, Heavenly sex: Sexuality and the Jewish tradition, NYU Press, New York, NY.
Yarhouse, M.A. & Tan, E.S., 2025, Sexuality and sex therapy: A comprehensive Christian appraisal, InterVarsity Press.
Yoshimura, R., 2018, ‘Sexual self-esteem and the church’, Pepperdine Journal of Communication Research 6(7), 35–39.
|
Email this article (Login required)
