Neville (1993:130) suggests that notions of timelessness stem from the philosophical traditions of ancient Greece. This tradition emphasised ideals of perfection. A fundamental notion was that perfect beings resided in a state of perpetual perfection, untouched by the passage of time. Thus, Plato (1992:2.381a-c; 509b) argued that a perfect God must possess an unchanging nature and exist in a state of timelessness. Plato posited that the idea of change is fundamentally separate from the ideal of perfection (Qureshi-Hurst 2024:6), suggesting that imperfect entities inhabit the domain of time.

Aristotle (1989:12) goes further than Plato’s claims, arguing that the nature of immutability prevents a perfect God from having knowledge of events that occur in time. Aristotle contends that the awareness of events exposes God’s mind to change. Xenophanes shares comparable viewpoints with those of Plato and Aristotle. In Fragments 4 (in Mann 2005:35), Xenophanes underscores that ‘Always he [God] remains in the same state, changing not at all’. By this assertion, Xenophanes acknowledges that God, existing outside of time, remains immutable, unaffected by any form of change, whether it be intrinsic or extrinsic. As the study advances, I will elucidate that timelessness and immutability embody two facets of a unified concept within the theological context of God’s timelessness. One cannot exist independently of the other.

The patristic tradition, spanning the 1st to 8th centuries, had Christian scholars engaging with discussions over the Trinity. These debates were inspired by doctrinal attacks on the church for ostensibly promoting polytheism. In reaction to critiques, certain church fathers employed Greek metaphysics to advocate for the Oneness of the Trinity (Słomka 2022:2). Although maybe unintentional on the part of the patristic scholars, Greek metaphysics ultimately directed them towards the conception of a God who is timeless and unchangeable.

By way of example, Tertullian (1956) contended that God dwells in an unchanging eternity. Origen (in Drzyżdżyk & Kosińska 2014:74) aligned with Tertullian, asserting that God exists ‘outside time and [is] unchanging’. It seems, consequently, that for scholars of the patristic tradition, akin to the Greek tradition, the attributes of timelessness and immutability are fundamental traits that set apart God as the epitome of perfection. This perspective, as already intimated, was employed to uphold the Oneness inherent in the Trinity.

The Middle Ages represents a historical epoch in Christianity profoundly shaped by Greek philosophical concepts. For instance, Augustine of Hippo (1999:154) asserts that ‘in the eternal nothing passeth, but the whole is present; whereas no time is all at once present’. According to Augustine, every temporal moment exists simultaneously before God. This implies that all events – whether they are future, present, or past – exist concurrently before God. Expanding on Augustine’s theological framework, Boethius (2009) presents a definition of eternity:

Boethius’ definition highlights two important theological aspects by employing specific adjectives. The first adjective, ‘infinite’ or ‘illimitable’, suggests that God’s existence encompasses all temporal points. The second adjective, ‘simultaneous’, indicates that all activities and perceptions occur at the same time without change or succession (Neidhart 2015:4–5). Based on my analysis of the literature, the concept of God’s timelessness is most prominently articulated during the mediaeval period.

In contemporary discourse, various notable scholars advocate for the theology of timelessness (Helm 2010; Jowers 2005; Stump & Kretzmann 1981). Stump and Kretzmann (1981), for instance, support and revise the mediaeval concept of timelessness. It must be stated, although, that Stump and Kretzmann revise the concept of timelessness, as various theologians from the Reformation era in the 16th century, including Pierre Gassendi, Isaac Newton, Samuel Clarke, and John Tillotson, challenged the idea of timelessness for philosophical, biblical and theological reasons. Scholars of the Reformation, for instance, argue that time emerges as a necessary concomitant of God’s eternal existence. What these scholars mean is that God possesses a consciousness of time. The subsequent section will provide a comprehensive analysis of Stump and Kretzmann.

The analysed traditions fundamentally support the concept of God’s timelessness via their interpretation of most perfect Being idea. In this setup, perfect entities, like God, exist in a state of immutable timelessness. The following section rigorously analyses the concept of timelessness, concentrating on the model’s deficiencies and their consequences for African Christians.

This section will commence with a concise overview of the African religious worldview, followed by an in-depth analysis of the concept of timelessness. An understanding of the African worldview is crucial for grasping the challenges that the concept of timelessness presents for African Christians.

By ‘worldview’, I am referring to the cognitive orientation of an individual or society. This orientation encompasses the extensive frameworks of knowledge, cultural practices, customs, religious values, and viewpoints of an individual or society. As a result, societies interpret phenomena differently, influenced by their cultural, religious, and traditional values. In the light of this, the understanding of God can differ among various societies (Thabede 2008:235). In numerous African societies, for example, the concept of God is often articulated using concrete language, whereas in the West, it is typically communicated through more abstract concepts. For instance, the Karanga, an ethnic group that speaks Shona and predominantly inhabits southern Zimbabwe, conceptualise God as ‘the Great Pool’ of water. Mbiti (1970:5) explicates this concrete language as a metaphor that ‘compares God’s presence to water’, which addresses the concept of divine omnipresence, or as articulated by Daneel (1971:83), the notion of God being perpetually ‘present in His creation, standing in direct relation to the life-giving water’.

Given the circumstances outlined in the previous paragraph, however, literature indicates that during the 19th century, as Africans adopted Christianity, they also integrated the Western theological worldview that framed Christianity, whether this was a conscious choice or an inadvertent outcome (Du Toit 2024:2). The Christian worldview, however, exhibits notable inconsistencies with the African religious worldview across several essential theo-religious dimensions. In my view, the variation in worldviews, in fact, is the main factor contributing to the theological problems in the comprehension of God’s timelessness.

Du Toit (2024:3) bolsters my argument by asserting that ‘an authentic African Christian identity is dependent on a positive revaluation and recovery of the African’s religious past’, highlighting the significant impact of the African worldview on African Christians. Urbaniak and Manobo (2020:240) concur, emphasising that the African worldview serves as the basis for African Christianity. The observations made by these esteemed scholars lend support to the notion that the conversion of Africans to Christianity is frequently assumed to entail a simultaneous transformation in their African worldview. This, in spite of that, is not always the case.

An important feature of the African worldview is its holistic nature (Mokhutso 2022:7), indicating that all components within this worldview are interconnected (Ogbonnaya 2022:123). Balogun and Sofadekan (2019) discuss the interconnected nature of the African worldview:

In examining the interconnectedness of reality, Tempels (1959:24), who delves into the philosophy of the Bantu, and Daneel (1971:79), who investigates the Shona traditional religion, concur that all facets of African spirituality are intricately intertwined within a unified reality.

The Christian worldview, on the other hand, presents a dualistic framework, consisting of both the sacred and the secular (Moscicke 2017:135). The sacred and secular exist as distinct entities, contrasting with the perspective found in the African worldview (Balogun & Sofadekan 2019:182). Evidence in the literature suggests that this dualistic perspective originates from Greek philosophy (Olabamiji 2023:2). Moscicke (2017:135) attests, although, that a significant number of African Christian churches have adopted the Western dualistic perspective. The observations regarding ‘worldview’ now direct us towards an examination of the timelessness model.

In one of the churches I oversee, a member transitioned to become a Sangoma, a Zulu word for a traditional healer in South Africa. During the interaction with the member, she disclosed that her decision to become a Sangoma stems from the belief that the Christian God is insufficient in addressing the challenges encountered by Africans. In her situation, she is beset by the presence of an ancestor’s spirit, who persistently manifests in her dreams to forewarn her of impending calamities affecting her own life, her family’s, and occasionally those of her neighbours. In the light of her Christian beliefs, she chose to disregard the ominous warnings presented in her dream, labelling them as demonic. However, a series of unfortunate events continued to unfold around her, a consequence of her silence regarding the forewarnings. She claims that participating in prayer, fasting, and pursuing pastoral counselling did not yield the desired outcomes.

This section examines the reasons behind the choice of certain African Christians to embrace African spirituality, despite the prevailing assumption that conversion would keep them within the bounds of Christianity (Mokhoathi 2017:2). This section is encapsulated by the following questions: What elements contribute to the tendency of certain African Christians to seek help from their ancestors, even when there is an expectation that the God of Christianity will offer support (Nürnberger 2007:68)? What elements influence the acceptance of dual membership in both the Christian church and African spirituality among some of the African Christians (Adamo 2011:1; Van der Merwe 2016:571)?

Michael (2013) seeks to answer the aforementioned questions. He insists that African Christians interact with African spirituality because of the fact that, although they are ‘Christians in name’ (Michael 2013:45), the foundational African worldview influences their understanding of Christianity. This section, however, provides a more comprehensive analysis that extends beyond Michael’s viewpoint. The reversion of African Christians to African spirituality, I argue, can be attributed to the concept of timelessness. While there are various challenges facing African Christians within the enduring framework, nevertheless, I will focus solely on those I deem essential, given the limitations of space.

Firstly, the conceptual issue in the theology of timelessness relates to the influence of Greek metaphysics on Christianity. As already shown, several early significant church fathers, mediaeval intellectuals, and contemporary academics have utilised Greek metaphysics to define the attributes of a perfect God (Mohammdinia & Dibaji 2023:388). The application of Greek philosophy to theology, despite potentially sincere intentions, has resulted in unnecessary complications regarding the Christian God.

Inspired by Greek philosophy, for example, Aquinas (1947:53) advocated for divine immutability. He contended that immutability implies that God is incapable of suffering, both in Christ and in relation to humanity (Pârvan & McCormack 2017:5–6). Anselm (in Rogers 1997:5) once asserted: ‘[Y]ou [God] are simply beyond all time. For yesterday, today and tomorrow are nothing other than temporal’. As can be seen, Anselm associates timelessness with immutability. Contemporary theologian Helm (2010:39) assesses both Aquinas and Anselm, asserting that God ‘cannot have temporal relationship with any of his creation’. Nonetheless, is this representation of God coherent for the African Christian perspective?

The aforementioned depiction of God is likely unrecognisable to African Christians, whose religious worldview is dynamic (Qureshi-Hurst 2024:17). What do I mean by this? Africans typically participate in prayer and perform sacrifices to God, expecting prompt solutions to their challenges. For instance, as noticed by Tempels (1959:31), the Bantu-speaking Africans, including the Gikuyu of Central Kenya, hold the belief that God responds to prayers. Daneel (1995:221–222) discusses the concept of God (Mwari) in Shona traditional religion. He states that Mwari engages in warfare on behalf of the Shona people during periods of crisis and additionally ensures rainfall for their agricultural practices.

All these actions, I argue, require a specific order, transformation, and progression, conditions that an unchanging God cannot experience (Antombikums 2023:82). Therefore, to suggest that God exists beyond the confines of time and remains unchanging inherently suggests inaccessibility to God. This timelessness concept, within the contemplation of the African, remains profoundly enigmatic.

The timelessness concept, moreover, is not only unrecognisable to African Christians but also irreconcilable with biblical testimony. This raises significant concerns, as African Christians view the Bible as a fundamental guide in their lives (Fashole-Luke 1975:263). Therefore, to claim that there is no connection between God and humanity, as suggested by Augustine (Pârvan & McCormack 2017:5–6) and others (Harold 2021:1), stands in stark opposition to scriptural passages such as Exodus 3, Philippians 2:7, 2 Corinthians 8:9, and John 17:5. For instance, in Exodus 3, a conversation occurs between Moses and God, whereas Philippians 2:7 reflects on Jesus Christ taking on human form and dwelling among humanity.

These aforesaid biblical passages provide a framework for African religious thought that illustrates the interaction between God and Africans. Take, for instance, two of the dominant metaphors that illustrate God’s presence and engagement with Africans: air and wind. By way of example, Mbiti (1970:7) notes the Lango of Uganda, who perceive God’s presence akin to the sensations of air and wind. Their perspective suggests that God’s presence is an integral aspect of all existence, analogous to the way air and wind are omnipresent. Undoubtedly, these divine actions unfold within the realm of time, implying that God engages in relationships in a manner that is both dynamic and evolving. Emphasising Greek metaphysics within Christianity at the expense of biblical testimony only diminishes the perception of African Christians regarding the God of the Bible (Ekeke & Ekeopara 2010:210–211).

Secondly, timelessness theology is that it presents God as more of an abstract concept rather than as a personal, living Being (Cucu 2017:12). According to Fisher (2017:461), biblical narratives refrain from utilising abstract philosophical notions in their discussions regarding God. In fact, classical theologian Leftow (2001:150–151) critiques Aquinas’ interpretation of timelessness, arguing that it renders God abstract and impersonal. Leftow argues that the notion of timelessness results in the inference that God lacks vitality. In the context of Tempels’ (1959:32) work, vitality appears to be the fundamental element that unifies African spirituality, indicating that any force perceived as a threat to vitality is regarded as antagonistic to the African identity. Therefore, if Christianity poses such a threat, it accounts for the challenges in fully converting Africans or the tendency of African Christians to revert to African spirituality.

Africans view God as a concrete, human-like presence rather than merely an abstract idea (Adedeji 2012:48–49). Consider, for instance, the Ngombe of Uganda who inhabit the dense forest. According to them, a forest serves as a concrete manifestation of enduring existence. Utilising this tangible metaphor, the Ngombe refer to God as ‘the everlasting One of the forest’ (Mbiti 1970:13). Tempels (1959:39–40) supports this assertion by indicating that the Bantu’s tangible comprehension of God ‘belongs to the realm of natural knowledge’, while Ushe (2017:158) maintains that a faith that strips away the personal attributes of God reduces God to a mere abstract notion. In the same vein, Idowu (1962:39; cf. Ukpong 1983:190) posits that Africans seek a God with whom they can forge a meaningful relationship. To clarify this idea, I must reference Tempels again.

Tempels’ work, Bantu Philosophy (1959), centres on a concept he refers to as ‘vital force’, or ‘life’, and even ‘energy’. While Tempels (1959:31) does not provide clarity on whether this energy is perceived by Bantu speakers as God himself or merely as a life force emanating from God, it is evident that this force is regarded with significant seriousness across Africa. Tempels posits that the Bantu dedicate their lives to prayer and the invocation of God, seeking to attain this vital force. Let us consider, then, that this essential force may indeed be identified with the divine presence of God himself. This, then, indicates that through invocation, the African seeks to summon the presence of God, especially during moments of crisis. Once more, my argument advances that a timeless God, existing beyond the constraints of time, cannot fully engage with the temporal experiences of the African, thereby diminishing the relevance of such a God to the African context. In fact, Tempels (1959:32) argues that the vital force is responsible for making it difficult for Africans to fully convert to Christianity.

Thirdly, the concept of a timeless God presents challenges to the African understanding of divine theophanies. In the African religious thought, theophanic manifestations of God to Africans serve to deepen the connection between God and the African community (Ekeke & Ekeopara 2010:212). Certain Africans claim that they have experienced divine manifestations through dreams or visions (Moscicke 2017:132–133). Tempels (1959:73) recounts a dialogue with a pregnant African Christian woman who asserted that she discerned the gender of her unborn child through a divine dream.

Generally, although, the theophanic manifestations of God in Africa occur in natural phenomena (Ushe 2017:161). According to Banana (1991:40), these phenomena include locations such as mountains and rocks. For example, the Gikuyu in Kenya have sacred mountains that they identify with God’s resting place. The Sonjo of Tanzania have a mountain known as ‘the Mountain of God’, and the Lango do not encourage people to build buildings near sacred mountains (Mbiti 1970:7). These are some of the locations associated with Gods theophanic appearances. Banana (1991:40) indicates that such appearances are not exclusive to the African religious context, as they can also be found in the Old Testament. Africans hold the belief that God can be encountered anywhere in the world through theophanic manifestations (Mdingi 2023:65). This viewpoint holds validity solely if one acknowledges the existence of God within a temporal context, which stands in opposition to the theological concept of God’s timelessness.

Alongside theophanic manifestations of God, Africans utilise anthropomorphic methods to conceptualise God (Ekeke & Ekeopara 2010:211). For example, the Zulus identify God as the ‘Watcher of everything’, whereas the Ila characterise God’s ‘ears as long’ (Tovagonze 1992:125). These anthropomorphic assertions clearly demonstrate God’s transcendence, suggesting that God has omniscience regarding all events that unfold over temporal time. However, as events occur at varying intervals, this indicates that God experiences time in conjunction with humanity, a viewpoint that distinctly opposes the concept of timelessness in theology.

I am now revisiting the work of Stump and Kretzmann (1981). The work of these scholars is essential as it contests the arguments put forth by this study. Stump and Kretzmann present a theory known as ET-simultaneity, positing that the theology surrounding God’s timelessness is free from conceptual deficiencies. This theory contends that a timeless God can interact with temporal beings while maintaining His perfection. According to the theory, alternatively, ET-simultaneity means the simultaneous existence of something temporal with something eternal. E denotes eternity, whereas T indicates temporality. Simultaneity refers to the coexistence of eternity and temporality at the same time (Stump & Kretzmann 1981:436).

Although Stump and Kretzmann clarify that while eternity and temporality coexist, these two modalities of existence operate independently from each other. Stump and Kretzmann (1981:436) argue that when we contemplate the future, interact with the present, and have detached from the past, all these temporal dimensions exist simultaneously from the perspective of timelessness, allowing God to have access to each one of them. Nevertheless, does the ET-simultaneity theory present a strong case for the idea that a timeless God is capable of interacting with entities constrained by time? I believe it does not.

The challenge presented by ET-simultaneity lies in its claim of a coexistence between eternity and temporality. The problem is that the theory falls short in establishing any causal connection between these two forms of existence. It seems evident that, considering the presence of two separate frames of existence, God’s engagement with temporality is exclusively through perception; God observes all occurrences within the temporal frame from a perspective that transcends time. But, this only suggests that the nature of God’s connection to temporality is more visual than causal (Padgett 2010:888). The conceptual deficiency is that visual relation on the part of God still positions God beyond the accessibility of Africans, a concept that contradicts the African religious perspective (Słomka 2022:4).

Moreover, Swinburne (2017:682) explores the question of how a timeless God could differentiate between the future and the present, or the past and the future, without having an awareness of the flow of time. This is because to engage with the passage of time necessitates that God undergo change, albeit if such change is solely in perception. Padgett (2010) is correct:

The act of visual perception alone, therefore, does not suffice.

This section reimagines the implications of a temporal God for African Christians. It illustrates why African Christians believe in a God in time.

The presence of God within temporal existence fortifies the belief of Africans in the scriptures. This occurrence can be ascribed not only to the mutual connection that characterises the relationship between the God of the Bible and humankind but also to the similarities noted between the African religious worldview and the biblical outlook (Moscicke 2017:139). For example, the biblical and African religious traditions reveal unique patterns of sacrifices and rituals. Although these similarities may imply different concepts in the two worlds, they point to a shared underlying notion that God operates within the space-time continuum. Nwaigbo (2010:59–60) underscores that the similarities between the two religious worlds forge a link between Africans and the biblical text. For Takov and Banlanjo (2022:2919), the similarities between the African worldview and the Bible have rendered Africans particularly inclined to embrace Christianity. Consequently, it is logical to conclude that the God portrayed in the Bible, when compared to Greek metaphysics, aligns with African perspectives owing to the similarities that can be observed between the biblical narratives and African spiritual traditions.

Moreover, the presence of God in time carries profound implications, particularly in affirming to Africans His active engagement in the pursuit of eradicating evil. Africa is not immune to the problem of evil. Agada and Ikuli (2024:5) highlight that Africans grapple with the difficulty of aligning the notion of a perfect God with the presence of evil in the world. Indeed, Africans face a multitude of adversities, including gender-based violence, abhorrent ritualistic murders of innocent children, heightened crime rates in specific nations such as South Africa, racial discrimination, and civil unrests in numerous African countries. Accordingly for Africans, A God that exists in time is uniquely positioned to confront the problem of evil. In fact, Feinberg (2001:501–502) posits that the problem of evil represents ‘a spatio-temporal problem’ and ‘[t]he only way God can deal with this problem is for Him to be present in the world’. Conversely, a God who exists outside of time is incapable of engaging with evil, as the act of confronting evil necessitates a temporal presence.

Finally, although Mbiti (1969:16) does not address God’s relationship to time, despite having written extensively on the concept of African time, he does discuss African time in terms of events that have occurred, are currently taking place, and are about to occur. This insight underlines the idea that time in Africa does not exist independently of events, implying that as long as God stands in connection to events, He experiences time in the same manner that Africans do. There is, moreover, no indication in African religious philosophy, at least according to Mbiti’s interpretation of time, that time should be dreaded to the point that God cannot exist in time.