Original Research

Evaluation into religious and global perspectives on abortion

Hundzukani P. Khosa-Nkatini

Received: 20 June 2025; Accepted: 11 Aug. 2025; Published: 24 Oct. 2025

Copyright: © 2025. The Author. Licensee: AOSIS.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract

This article examines the complex and contentious issue of abortion, focusing on both religious and global perspectives that influence opinions and shape policies worldwide. The article provides a thorough exploration of the varied viewpoints, critically analysing them through relevant theoretical frameworks. It seeks to unravel the multifaceted nature of the abortion debate by considering how different religious beliefs and cultural contexts impact the perception and regulation of abortion. Employing qualitative methods, the research gathers data from a diverse range of sources, including religious texts, legal documents, academic literature and expert interviews. The findings reveal significant differences in how abortion is viewed and managed across religious traditions and cultural settings. For instance, while some religions strictly prohibit abortion, others permit it under certain conditions, reflecting the diversity of thought within religious discourse. On a global scale, abortion policies are shaped by a combination of legal frameworks, public opinion and cultural norms, with international organisations playing a crucial role in influencing these policies. The study also highlights the role of media and public opinion in shaping the abortion debate, which varies considerably across different regions. The analysis identifies common themes, such as the protection of life and the importance of compassionate care, which transcend religious and cultural boundaries.

Contribution: These findings offer valuable insights into the ongoing debate, providing a foundation for future research and informing policy discussions. The study concludes that while the abortion controversy is deeply rooted in religious and cultural beliefs, there are shared values that could guide more nuanced and empathetic approaches to policymaking in this area.

Keywords: abortion; religious; world; Christianity; beliefs; global; cultural; controversy; policy.

Introduction

Abortion is a highly contentious issue that has generated significant debate across different societies, cultures and religions. The term ‘abortion’ refers to the medical procedure of terminating a pregnancy before the embryo or foetus can survive outside the womb. It can occur spontaneously, known as a miscarriage, or be induced deliberately, termed as an induced abortion (Kolls 2008). The subject of abortion encompasses various aspects, including ethical, legal, medical and socio-cultural dimensions, making it a complex and multifaceted issue. The history of abortion is long and complicated, with evidence of its practice dating back to ancient civilisations. In these early societies, the approach to abortion was largely shaped by cultural, social and economic factors. Historically, attitudes towards abortion have varied greatly depending on cultural factors. In ancient societies, such as those in Egypt and Greece, abortion was often accepted and practiced with various methods (Jones & Davis 2017). The procedure was seen as a means of controlling family size, managing resources or addressing issues of maternal health. Back then, abortion was not heavily stigmatised, especially in cases where population control was deemed necessary. However, as religions, particularly Christianity, began to dominate societal norms, abortion became increasingly condemned. This shift led to the criminalisation of abortion in many regions during the Middle Ages and subsequent centuries. The influence of religious doctrine became more pronounced, for instance, the Christian Church viewed it as a grave moral sin. This religious condemnation was often codified into law, resulting in strict prohibitions and severe punishments for those who performed or sought abortions (Forster 2021).

In the modern era, the conversation around abortion has evolved because of medical advancement and changing societal values. This has reduced the long-term physical and mental ramifications for women. In many developed countries, abortion has been legalised when it is performed using safe, modern techniques that minimise risks to women’s health. The availability of abortion services has been framed as a matter of reproductive rights. This is because of the argument that women should have the right to make decisions about their own bodies (Jones & Davis 2017).

Although many parts of the world still impose significant legal and moral restrictions on the practice of abortion in some regions, these restrictive laws force women to seek unsafe and illegal abortions. This often leads to high rates of maternal mortality and morbidity (Kolls 2008). The ongoing debate over abortion is shaped by a complex interplay of religious beliefs, cultural values and legal frameworks. While some societies have moved towards a more permissive stance, recognising the importance of reproductive rights, others continue to uphold strict prohibitions, reflecting deeply ingrained moral and ethical concerns (Forster 2021). This dichotomy illustrates the enduring nature of the abortion controversy and highlights the challenges of reconciling differing perspectives in a globalised world.

Main aim and objectives

The primary aim is:

• To analyse the influence of religious beliefs on abortion policies across different cultures by the end of the study.
• To evaluate the impact of legal restrictions on abortion-related health outcomes.
• To compare global perspectives on abortion and identify key trends influencing the debate by the conclusion of the research.
• To provide a detailed analysis of religious and global perspectives on abortion.

Significance of the study

The significance of this study lies in its ability to shed light on the multifaceted dimensions of the abortion debate. It plays a crucial role in public health, particularly in understanding the dire consequences of restrictive abortion laws that often push women towards unsafe procedures. Such laws are linked to increased maternal mortality and morbidity, making this analysis essential for identifying public health challenges (Starrs 2018). The study also delves into the human rights implications of abortion, with a focus on women’s autonomy and the broader societal impacts of restricting this right. By exploring how various cultures and religions navigate this issue, the research highlights the ongoing tension between individual rights and collective moral values, offering a comprehensive view that can inform human rights advocacy (Cook & Dickens 2019). The ethical dimensions of abortion are examined, considering the deep-rooted religious beliefs that often drive the debate. Understanding these ethical concerns is critical for fostering constructive dialogue, which is necessary for any meaningful discussion on abortion (Sedgh, Bearak & Singh 2016). Lastly, the research provides valuable insights for policymakers, helping them craft laws that are not only effective but also culturally and ethically sensitive, thereby aiming for a balanced approach to the complex issue of abortion (Ganatra et al. 2017).

Literature review

Abortion is defined as the termination of a pregnancy before the foetus is capable of surviving outside the womb. This can occur spontaneously, known as a miscarriage, or be induced through medical procedures. The distinction between spontaneous and induced abortion is crucial in understanding the different contexts in which abortion occurs (Grimes & Creinin 2004). Induced abortion can further be categorised into medical and surgical methods, each with its own ethical, legal and medical implications. Religious perspectives on abortion vary significantly across different faiths. For example, Christianity generally condemns abortion, considering it a violation of the sanctity of life, while other religions, such as some interpretations of Buddhism and Hinduism, offer more nuanced views depending on circumstances (Keown 2005). Understanding these religious stances is essential for comprehending the broader ethical debates surrounding abortion.

Historical perspectives on abortion

The historical evolution of abortion views, driven by religious doctrines and theological debates, has had lasting effects on modern attitudes and legal frameworks. These historical perspectives continue to shape contemporary debates on abortion, illustrating the enduring influence of religious and moral considerations on this complex issue.

Ancient practices

Abortion has been documented across various ancient cultures. In ancient Rome, the practice of abortion was regulated and sometimes accepted under certain conditions. Roman law permitted abortion if it was deemed necessary to protect the health of the mother. This pragmatic approach reflected a broader acceptance of abortion, considering the societal context and the mother’s well-being (Davis 2020). Ancient medical texts, such as those by Hippocrates, contain references to abortion practices. Hippocratic writings suggest that various methods, including herbal concoctions and surgical interventions, were used to induce abortion. These methods were based on the available medical knowledge of the time and were often employed to address personal and societal issues (Nutton 2013). The acceptance and practice of abortion in these ancient societies highlight a significant departure from purely moral or religious considerations. Instead, the practice was guided by practical needs and medical understanding. This historical context sets a foundation for understanding how abortion practices evolved with changing social and ethical perspectives.

Shifts on the evolution in religion

The shift in religious perspectives on abortion had profound implications for societal norms and legal structures. The Church’s teachings on abortion were grounded in the belief that life began at conception, which significantly influenced legal prohibitions against abortion (O’Collins 2018). This religious perspective led to the development of stringent laws aimed at curbing abortion practices, reflecting a broader trend of integrating religious morality into legal systems. The Protestant Reformation introduced new theological debates about abortion. Reformers such as Martin Luther and John Calvin had differing views on the morality of abortion, which further complicated the religious landscape. While some reformers maintained the Church’s stance, others began to question the rigid interpretations of when life begins and the moral implications of abortion (MacCulloch 2003). This period of theological debate contributed to a more nuanced understanding of abortion within religious contexts, influencing subsequent legal and ethical discussions.

Abortion methods

They are generally divided into two main categories – spontaneous and induced. Spontaneous abortion, often referred to as miscarriage, is the natural loss of a pregnancy. This occurs when a fertilised egg fails to develop properly in the uterus. Miscarriage happens before the foetus can survive outside the womb (Jones 2022). It can be a deeply distressing experience for those who go through it. Sometimes, it can be difficult to distinguish a miscarriage from a late menstrual cycle, especially in the early stages of pregnancy. While menstruation is not typically viewed as an abortion, some argue that early miscarriages and late periods may present similar physical symptoms (Promislow 2006).

In contrast, induced abortions are carried out through medical or surgical interventions, usually when the pregnancy poses a risk to the mother’s health or is not desired for other reasons (Williams 2021). Therapeutic abortion is one such intervention, performed specifically to protect the mother’s health. It involves several surgical techniques. One common method is vacuum aspiration (also known as manual vacuum aspiration [MVA]). In this procedure, a device is used to dislodge and remove the foetus and placenta from the uterus (Miller & Patel 2023). This technique is often used in the early stages of pregnancy. Another method is dilation and curettage (D&C). This procedure involves dilating the cervix to access the uterus and then using a sharp instrument to remove the foetus and the uterine lining. The D&C procedure can be performed during various stages of pregnancy, depending on the specific circumstances and health needs. The choice of method depends on factors such as the stage of pregnancy, the woman’s health and personal circumstances.

Religious perspectives on abortion

There are many religions in the world, and they all reveal both common themes and significant differences. Across various traditions, the sanctity of life is a central theme, although interpretations and applications vary. Understanding these diverse perspectives provides insight into the complex interplay of religious, ethical and cultural factors shaping views on abortion (Chamberlain 2018).

Christianity

Christianity’s stance on abortion is deeply rooted in the belief in the sanctity of life. This belief is based on biblical teachings that consider life as sacred from the moment of conception (Morris 2018). Different Christian denominations hold varied views on abortion. For instance, the Roman Catholic Church strictly opposes abortion, considering it morally unacceptable under any circumstances, except to save the life of the mother (Harrison 2021). In contrast, some Protestant denominations adopt a more nuanced approach. While still upholding the sanctity of life, they may permit abortion under specific conditions such as severe foetal abnormalities or risks to the mother’s health. This divergence highlights how theological interpretations and denominational doctrines influence the moral implications of abortion.

Islam

In Islam, abortion is generally permitted under certain conditions but is subject to strict guidelines. Islamic jurisprudence allows abortion up to 120 days (approximately 4 months) of gestation, based on the belief that the soul enters the foetus after this period (Ibrahim 2022). The primary reasons for permissible abortion include the health of the mother or severe foetal abnormalities. The Quran and Hadith provide the foundational texts for these rulings, emphasising the balance between the sanctity of life and the well-being of the mother (Al-Krenawi & Graham 2020). This religious reasoning reflects a nuanced approach that integrates moral and medical considerations within the framework of Islamic teachings.

Judaism

Jewish perspectives on abortion involve balancing the sanctity of life with the health and well-being of the mother. According to Jewish law, abortion is permitted if the mother’s life is at risk or if continuing the pregnancy would cause significant harm to her health (Klausner 2017). The Talmud and other rabbinic texts discuss abortion in the context of preserving the mother’s health, demonstrating a flexible approach that prioritises her physical and mental well-being (Friedman 2018). This perspective underscores the importance of context and the potential conflict between religious principles and medical necessities.

Hinduism

Hindu beliefs about abortion are influenced by concepts of karma and dharma. Abortion is generally viewed as undesirable because of the principle of karma, which posits that actions have consequences that affect future lives (Brahmachari 2020). However, Hinduism also acknowledges complex personal and ethical circumstances. Decisions about abortion are often considered in the light of one’s dharma, or duty, which may include considerations of the well-being of the mother and family (Srinivasan 2019). This approach reflects the interplay between moral teachings and practical considerations in Hindu thought.

Buddhism

Buddhism’s view on abortion is grounded in the principle of non-harm (ahimsa), which stresses the importance of avoiding actions that cause suffering (Harvey 2013). Abortion is often seen as problematic because it involves ending a potential life, which can be viewed as causing harm. However, Buddhist teachings also recognise the complexity of individual situations and the need for compassionate decision-making (Powers 2020). This perspective illustrates the tension between ethical principles and practical realities in Buddhist ethics.

Indigenous beliefs

Indigenous perspectives on abortion vary widely among cultures but often involve a deep connection to spiritual and communal values. In many indigenous cultures, decisions about abortion are guided by considerations of balance and harmony within the community (Wilson 2019). Spiritual beliefs and communal responsibilities play a significant role in shaping attitudes towards abortion, reflecting a holistic view that integrates personal, social and spiritual dimensions. These perspectives highlight the diversity of approaches to abortion and the influence of cultural values on moral decision-making.

Global perspectives on abortion

Western countries

In Western countries, abortion laws and attitudes are diverse, reflecting broader socio-political divides. The pro-choice movement advocates for the right of individuals to make autonomous decisions about their reproductive health. This view is often supported by legal frameworks that permit abortion under a variety of circumstances (Jones & Jerman 2017). In contrast, the pro-life movement opposes abortion on moral and ethical grounds, arguing that life begins with conception and should be protected (Miller 2020). This dichotomy is evident in the legal landscape of countries such as the United States, where abortion laws vary significantly between states, reflecting the polarised nature of public opinion and policy (Guttmacher Institute 2022). Abortion services are easily accessible, in terms of the law, availability of facilities and health insurance coverage of the procedure in the Netherlands, France and Slovenia. Abortion service is less accessible in the United Kingdom, Hungary and Turkey, as a result of limited accessibility to abortion services or a relatively high abortion fee. In some Eastern European countries, there has been a tendency in the last decade to limit the availability and access to abortion (Pinter et al. 2005).

Developing countries

In developing countries, South Africa, for an example, abortion policies are heavily influenced by cultural, religious and economic factors. In contrast, South Africa has relatively progressive abortion laws but still faces cultural resistance in certain areas. Many nations have restrictive abortion laws, which can lead to unsafe procedures and high rates of maternal mortality (Singh, Remez & Sedgh 2018). Cultural norms and religious beliefs often play a significant role in shaping these policies. For instance, in countries with strong religious or traditional influences, abortion may be heavily restricted or even criminalised, impacting women’s access to safe medical care (Chadwick 2021). Economic constraints also contribute to the difficulties faced by women seeking abortions, often limiting their options to unsafe methods (World Health Organization [WHO] 2019).

Women’s rights issues

Individual vs. collective rights

In Western societies, the emphasis is on individual rights, including a woman’s autonomy to make decisions about abortion. This perspective champions personal choice and bodily autonomy as fundamental principles (Harris 2024). This contrasts with traditional African values, where decisions around abortion are often influenced by communal norms and societal expectations (Nguyen 2023). Traditional African cultures generally prioritise collective well-being over individual autonomy, leading to different attitudes towards reproductive rights (Adams 2023).

The modernisation of African societies is bringing these differing values into sharper focus. As African nations undergo social and economic changes, there is growing debate about the role of individual rights within traditionally collective frameworks (Banda 2024). This shift reflects broader global trends towards recognising personal autonomy, challenging entrenched cultural norms and introducing new dynamics into discussions on reproductive rights (Kumar 2023).

Modern versus traditional views

The impact of modernisation on traditional views of abortion in Africa is significant. Historically, traditional values have shaped perceptions of abortion, often viewing it through a lens of religious and communal principles (Adams 2023). However, with increasing modernisation, there is a growing push for individual rights and reproductive freedom, which contrasts with long-standing cultural and religious norms (Nguyen 2023). This evolving perspective is creating tension between maintaining traditional values and embracing modern principles of personal autonomy and gender equality (Banda 2024).

International organisations

International organisations such as the United Nations (UN) and the WHO play crucial roles in shaping global abortion policies. The UN provides guidance and sets standards for reproductive health rights, advocating for access to safe abortion services as a fundamental human right (United Nations Population Fund [UNFPA] 2020). The WHO supports research and policy development to improve abortion care and reduce the incidence of unsafe abortions worldwide (WHO 2021). These organisations work to influence national policies by promoting evidence-based practices and advocating for women’s health and rights.

Public opinion

Public opinion significantly influences abortion policies worldwide. Surveys and studies reveal varying levels of support for abortion rights across different regions (Pew Research Center 2022). In countries with progressive attitudes, public opinion often aligns with more liberal abortion laws. Conversely, in regions where conservative views dominate, restrictive abortion laws are more prevalent (Davis 2019). Understanding public opinion helps policymakers gauge societal attitudes and make informed decisions regarding abortion legislation.

Media influence

The media plays a powerful role in shaping public perceptions and debates on abortion. Different cultures and societies portray abortion in various ways, influencing public opinion and policy (Baker 2021). Media representations can either support or challenge prevailing norms, affecting how abortion is perceived and discussed in public discourse. The portrayal of abortion in media can also impact legislative change and public attitudes, highlighting the interplay between media influence and policy development (Gibson 2020).

Ethical dimensions of abortion

The sanctity of life argument

The sanctity of life argument asserts that life begins at conception and should be protected at all costs. This view is based on the Christian worldview that brings very earliest stages of human life, after fertilisation but before the early embryo has implanted in the uterus. This view holds that every embryo or foetus has inherent value and rights, which should not be infringed upon. Many religious groups, including Christians and Muslims, adhere to this perspective, emphasising that life is a sacred gift that must be preserved (Sulmasy 2008). This belief often leads to strong opposition to abortion, with proponents arguing that terminating a pregnancy is morally equivalent to taking a human life. The argument is supported by various religious doctrines that advocate for the protection of life from its very beginning, creating a significant ethical debate on the permissibility of abortion.

The autonomy argument

The autonomy argument presents a contrasting ethical view, focusing on a woman’s right to make decisions about her own body. This perspective, rooted in feminist theory and human rights, contends that a woman should have the freedom to choose whether or not to continue a pregnancy (Thomson 1971). Advocates of this viewpoint argue that forcing a woman to carry an unwanted pregnancy to term infringes upon her personal freedom and bodily autonomy. This argument highlights the ethical importance of individual choice and self-determination in reproductive health, challenging the notion that the embryo’s or foetus’s rights should override the woman’s right to make decisions about her own body.

Legal frameworks and policies

Legal frameworks governing abortion vary widely across the globe. In some countries, abortion is legal and accessible, with laws that protect reproductive rights and ensure safe procedures (European Centre for Law and Justice 2020). In others, restrictive laws limit access and often criminalise abortion, leading to significant health risks and legal consequences (Sedgh et al. 2016). Trends in legal frameworks show a growing recognition of abortion as a health issue in some regions, while others continue to uphold stringent restrictions based on moral or religious grounds.

International legal standards

International legal standards on abortion differ greatly across the globe. In some countries, abortion is available on demand, reflecting progressive legal frameworks. For instance, in the Netherlands, abortion is legal up to 24 weeks and is accessible through a straightforward process (Van der Scheer 2019). In contrast, other nations impose strict restrictions. For example, in El Salvador, abortion is banned in all circumstances, leading to severe legal and health consequences for women (Paltrow & Flavin 2013). These variations often mirror the cultural, religious and political landscapes of the countries involved.

In South Africa, the Choice on Termination of Pregnancy Act of 1996 allows for abortion on request during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy. Beyond this period, abortion is permitted under specific conditions, such as risks to the woman’s health or severe foetal abnormalities (South African Government 1996). This law reflects a more liberal stance compared to many African countries, where abortion laws can be highly restrictive.

Case studies – liberal versus restrictive policies

Case studies illustrate the impact of legal frameworks on health outcomes and women’s rights. In the Netherlands, where abortion laws are liberal, there is a low incidence of unsafe abortions and related complications (Van der Scheer 2019). This contrasts sharply with countries such as Nigeria and Kenya, where restrictive abortion laws lead to higher rates of unsafe abortions. In Nigeria, abortion is only permitted to save a woman’s life, resulting in dangerous, clandestine procedures (Iliyasu et al. 2019). Kenya’s restrictive laws contribute to unsafe abortions and high maternal morbidity (Karanja et al. 2020).

In Europe, Germany’s approach is more restrictive compared to the Netherlands but still more liberal than in many African countries. In Germany, abortion is permitted up to the 12th week of pregnancy, but mandatory counselling and a 3-day waiting period are required (Meyer 2021). This nuanced legal approach aims to balance access with ethical considerations, reducing the incidence of unsafe procedures while acknowledging differing moral perspectives.

Socio-cultural influences on abortion

Cultural norms significantly influence attitudes and practices surrounding abortion. In many societies, these norms are intertwined with religious beliefs, creating complex social dynamics. For instance, in several African and Asian communities, cultural taboos against abortion are deeply entrenched, often reflecting broader societal values regarding family and morality. This cultural stigma can lead to the practice of abortion being driven underground, where it becomes less safe and more dangerous. This clandestine nature is a direct consequence of the strong societal disapproval of abortion, making women reluctant to seek formal medical assistance (Sedgh et al. 2012).

The intersection of cultural and religious doctrines further complicates abortion practices. In many conservative societies, religious teachings heavily influence cultural norms, leading to stringent restrictions and moral condemnation of abortion. For example, in predominantly Catholic countries, such as in parts of Latin America, the Catholic Church’s stance against abortion heavily shapes public opinion and legal restrictions. This moral framework contributes to a lower acceptance of abortion and creates barriers to access, which can exacerbate health risks for women who seek abortions under unsafe conditions (Guttmacher Institute 2022).

Critical analysis of these socio-cultural influences reveals a pattern where restrictive cultural norms often result in adverse health outcomes. When abortion is heavily stigmatised and restricted, women are more likely to seek unsafe procedures, which can lead to serious health complications and even death. The disparity between cultural norms and access to safe abortion services highlights the need for comprehensive education and reform to address the health risks associated with restrictive abortion practices. Efforts to integrate cultural sensitivity with improved access to safe abortion services could mitigate these negative outcomes and promote better health for women (WHO 2019).

Macaulay’s analysis

Macaulay’s analysis explores the ethical dimensions of abortion within African Christianity, highlighting the conflict between pro-choice and pro-life viewpoints. This study underscores the complexity of reconciling religious beliefs with evolving societal attitudes on abortion (Macaulay 2024). The analysis reveals how African Christian ethical perspectives are influenced by both theological doctrines and contemporary social issues (Harris 2024).

Ladriele’s view

Ladriele’s examination of the Catholic Church’s internal debates regarding the beginning of human life provides insight into the Church’s position on abortion. The study highlights how theological discussions shape abortion legislation and reflect broader ethical considerations about reproductive rights (Corbin 2024). This perspective illustrates the tension between doctrinal teachings and the legal frameworks governing abortion (Kumar 2023).

De Villiers’ study

De Gulleys’ study on the Dutch Reformed Church’s stance on abortion, which took place at the General Synods focuses on the debate over the beginning of human life and its implications for policy. The research highlights the influence of religious perspectives on ethical and legislative approaches to abortion, demonstrating the varied positions across different faith traditions (De Gulleys 2024). This study contributes to understanding how religious beliefs shape abortion ethics and policy (Nguyen 2023).

Theoretical frameworks

Theoretical frameworks are structured sets of concepts and theories that guide the analysis of complex issues. They provide a systematic approach to understanding and interpreting various aspects of a topic. In the context of the abortion debate, theoretical frameworks help to dissect the ethical, moral and legal dimensions of the issue, offering insights into how different perspectives influence opinions and policies. These frameworks serve as lenses through which the arguments for and against abortion can be examined, helping to clarify the underlying principles and assumptions that shape public discourse.

Moral and ethical theories

Moral and ethical theories offer different perspectives on the abortion debate. Utilitarianism, for instance, evaluates actions based on their outcomes, aiming to maximise overall happiness. From a utilitarian standpoint, abortion might be justified if it leads to greater well-being for mothers and society (Mill 1863). In contrast, deontological ethics, as proposed by Immanuel Kant, focuses on adherence to moral rules and duties. According to this perspective, abortion could be considered morally wrong if it violates a fundamental duty to respect human life (Kant 1785). These theories and perspectives help frame the debate by emphasising either the consequences of abortion or the adherence to moral principles.

Feminist theories

Feminist theories provide a critical view on the abortion debate, emphasising bodily autonomy and reproductive rights. Feminist perspectives argue that a woman’s right to control her own body is fundamental and should not be infringed upon by external forces (Tong 2009). According to Spahn and Andrade (1998:261), the beginnings of individual human life may be viewed from a variety of perspectives. Even in religion to biology, including virtually every art and discipline in between, the question of when human life begins deeply shapes our worldviews. This approach challenges traditional gender norms and advocates women’s agencies in making decisions about pregnancy and childbirth. As argued by Brione (2015) that:

[A]t the very least, it must be recognized that the ability and tendency to view the unborn foetus as a separate person is likely to exert a subtle bias on the patient’s decision-making, which must be recognized if such decision-making is to be truly autonomous. (p. 75)

Reproduction and motherhood have been at the core of the feminist and women’s movements ever since their emergence. The struggle for reproductive rights and reproductive freedom, for control over their own reproduction and against the expropriation of their body, has bridged differences among women’s movements and feminist discourses. Feminists have regarded women’s acquisition of control over their own reproduction not only as a necessary step to individual freedom and autonomy but also as a fundamental condition to overcome patriarchal control and to improve the situation of women as a group (Gordon 1976; Petchesky 1995). Feminist theories underscore the importance of recognising women’s rights to make autonomous choices regarding their reproductive health, contrasting with more traditional, paternalistic viewpoints.

Human rights frameworks

Human rights frameworks examine abortion through the lens of individual rights. This approach considers the rights of both the mother and the unborn child, aiming to balance these often conflicting interests. For example, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) asserts the right to life, which can be interpreted to include the unborn (UN 1966). However, human rights frameworks also emphasise the rights of women to make decisions about their own bodies and health. This dual focus highlights the complexities in reconciling competing human rights claims in the context of abortion (Dworkin 1993).

Cultural relativism

Cultural relativism examines abortion within the context of cultural norms and values. This theory posits that moral and ethical standards are not universal but are shaped by cultural contexts. In societies with strong anti-abortion norms, cultural relativism explains the prevalence of restrictive practices and policies (Geertz 1973). This perspective helps to understand why abortion laws and attitudes vary widely across different cultures and highlights the importance of considering cultural context when discussing abortion.

Legal theories

Legal theories analyse how laws are interpreted and applied in abortion cases. These theories explore how legal principles, such as the right to privacy and bodily autonomy, are used to justify or restrict abortion. Legal theorists examine the role of judicial decisions and statutory laws in shaping abortion policies, often focusing on the tension between individual rights and state interests (Dworkin 1986). This approach provides insights into how legal arguments and interpretations impact the accessibility and regulation of abortion services.

Gaps in the literature

Research on abortion has extensively covered the legal, ethical and religious dimensions of the issue. There is a significant gap in understanding the personal and lived experiences of women who undergo abortions, especially in regions with restrictive laws. This gap is critical because it overlooks the emotional, psychological and socioeconomic challenges that these women face. The focus on macro-level analysis, such as legal frameworks and ethical debates, often neglects the micro-level realities of individuals affected by these policies. For instance, studies in countries with stringent abortion laws, like El Salvador and Poland, reveal that women often resort to unsafe, illegal procedures, which are rarely documented in existing research (Gerdts et al. 2016). The literature above lacks intersectional analysis that considers how factors such as socioeconomic status, race and geographic location affect women’s abortion experiences. This omission means that the unique challenges faced by marginalised groups are not adequately addressed.

There is a lack of longitudinal studies that track the long-term impacts of restrictive abortion policies on women’s health and well-being. Short-term studies might highlight immediate issues, but understanding the prolonged consequences, such as mental health outcomes and economic impacts, requires a more comprehensive approach. Research has shown that women denied abortions because of restrictive laws are more likely to face long-term economic hardship and health complications (Foster 2013). The lack of qualitative research capturing these personal experiences creates an incomplete picture of the true impact of restrictive abortion laws.

Implications for future research

The gaps in current literature suggest that future research must adopt an interdisciplinary approach that goes beyond legal and ethical considerations. There is a need for studies about when life begins that incorporate medical, psychological and socio-cultural perspectives to provide a more comprehensive understanding of abortion. Research could examine how restrictive laws influence women’s mental health, their access to safe healthcare and the broader societal implications. Examining well-known incidences, such as the tragic case of Savita Halappanavar in Ireland, highlights real-life consequences of restrictive abortion policies (Berer 2017). Halappanavar’s death because of the refusal of an abortion illustrates the deadly impact of restrictive laws. It shows the importance of understanding the human cost behind legal frameworks. Future research should aim at women’s rights. Another critical area for future research is the evaluation of public health interventions and their effectiveness in improving access to safe abortion services. Research should focus on how different models of public health support, such as comprehensive sex education and access to contraception, impact abortion rates and safety. Studies have shown that countries with robust sexual health education and accessible contraception tend to have lower abortion rates and better health outcomes (Sedgh et al. 2012).

Research methods and design

This research employed qualitative methods to explore multifaceted perspectives on abortion from religious and global viewpoints. Qualitative methods were chosen to provide a deep, nuanced understanding of the complex issues surrounding abortion, capturing a range of opinions and beliefs that quantitative approaches might miss. This approach is particularly effective for exploring how cultural, religious and personal factors influence views on abortion (Creswell 2014).

The study targeted a diverse range of participants to ensure comprehensive coverage of perspectives. In South Africa, the research focused on various abortion clinics, government hospitals and religious institutions. Data were collected from the Johannesburg-based clinic, Marie Stopes South Africa, known for providing reproductive health services, including abortion. The study also included interviews with professionals from government hospitals, Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital and representatives from different churches which provide comprehensive maternal health services and religious perspectives on abortion.

Data collection involved in-depth interviews with healthcare professionals, religious leaders and policymakers to gather diverse viewpoints on abortion. Content analysis of relevant documents, including religious texts, legal frameworks and academic articles, was conducted to supplement interview data. This approach allowed for the triangulation of data, enhancing the credibility of the findings (Patton 2015). The analysis of qualitative data involved coding and analysis to identify recurring themes and patterns across the interviews and documents. This process helped in synthesising the various perspectives and drawing meaningful conclusions about the impact of religious and legal contexts on abortion views and practices.

Ethical considerations were paramount in this research. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, ensuring they understood the purpose of the study and their right to withdraw at any time. Confidentiality was maintained by anonymising responses and securely storing data. The study adhered to ethical guidelines for research involving human subjects, ensuring that the rights and welfare of participants were protected throughout the research process (Beauchamp & Childress 2013).

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the University of Venda Research Ethics Committee (No. FHSSE/25HS/04/1806).

Results

The findings of this study reveal significant differences and commonalities in the religious and global perspectives on abortion. In essence, while religious views on abortion vary widely, with some faiths strictly prohibiting the practice and others allowing it under certain circumstances, global perspectives are influenced by a range of factors, including legal frameworks, public opinion and cultural norms. The study also highlights the role of international organisations in shaping abortion policies, as well as the impact of media and public opinion on the debate. The results are presented in the form of charts and tables to provide a clear and concise overview of the key findings.

The impact of religious beliefs on abortion policies in various cultures

This research revealed that religious convictions have a substantial impact on abortion policies globally, exhibiting differences among various faiths. For instance, Christianity predominantly opposes abortion yet permits exceptions in certain denominations, Islam forbids abortion with the exception of particular circumstances, Hinduism offers diverse perspectives that differ by denomination and geographical area and Buddhism generally stands against abortion based on the principles of non-harm. The information was gathered through an examination of religious texts and policy documents (refer to Table 1 and Table 2).

Religious beliefs significantly influence the formation of abortion laws and societal attitudes across different cultures (Gibson 2020). In essence, some religions predominantly oppose abortion, whereas others adopt more nuanced stances that vary based on regional interpretations. The observed patterns indicate that religions characterised by rigid doctrinal teachings, such as Catholicism and Islam, often exert a significant influence on laws that impose stringent restrictions on abortion. In contrast, religions that possess less centralised doctrines or accommodate a variety of interpretations tend to permit greater flexibility. Furthermore, local cultural contexts play a crucial role in shaping these religious influences, particularly in areas like Africa, where traditional beliefs converge with Christianity. These results indicate that religious beliefs play a crucial role in forming abortion policies, influencing both legislation and societal attitudes.

Effects of legal constraints on health outcomes related to abortion

The research analyses health outcomes across areas with varying abortion regulations. Areas with stringent abortion laws demonstrate elevated rates of unsafe abortions and poorer health outcomes, while areas with more permissive abortion laws reveal reduced rates of unsafe abortions and improved overall maternal health metrics (refer to Table 2).

In simple terms, nations that impose limitations on abortion access generally experience a higher incidence of unsafe procedures and poorer health outcomes for women. In contrast, nations that provide legal abortion options tend to exhibit improved health indicators. The data reveal distinct patterns indicating that legal restrictions are associated with adverse health effects. Unsafe abortions can result in complications such as haemorrhage and infection, which contribute to maternal morbidity and mortality. On the other hand, progressive abortion laws, when paired with accessible healthcare, significantly mitigate these risks. This emphasises the ramifications of abortion legislation. It underscores the necessity for legal reforms in restrictive nations to enhance women’s health and decrease preventable fatalities. The data support global health research that advocates safe and legal abortion access as an essential aspect of reproductive rights.

Analysis of worldwide viewpoints on abortion and major influencing factors

Global perspectives on abortion differ significantly, shaped by legal systems, cultural beliefs and the roles of international organisations. For instance, in South Africa, abortion is permitted with certain restrictions, while it is broadly legal in numerous Western nations and is subject to stringent limitations in various regions of Latin America and traditional Africa. Organisations such as the WHO and the UN are actively involved in promoting reproductive rights and play a crucial role in policy dialogues (refer to Table 3 and Table 4).

In summary, abortion laws and perspectives around the globe are varied, influenced by a mix of national legal frameworks, cultural beliefs and global advocacy efforts. The patterns indicate that while certain nations have progressive laws that uphold reproductive rights, others enforce stringent restrictions often associated with conservative cultural or religious ideologies. International organisations play a significant role by advancing health standards and human rights principles, thereby affecting policy changes in different countries. These insights highlight the intricate nature of abortion discussions worldwide and the numerous stakeholders involved. Global advocacy is essential in advocating for reform, yet the specific national contexts are vital in shaping policy results. Grasping these dynamics is crucial for successful reproductive health initiatives and advocacy (Banda 2024).

Discussion

Influence of religious beliefs on abortion policies across cultures

Religious beliefs significantly shape abortion policies, reflecting broader moral and ethical frameworks within different cultures. Major religions such as Christianity, Islam and Hinduism offer diverse perspectives on abortion, ranging from outright prohibition to conditional acceptance. For instance:

• Christian perspective – Christianity, with its numerous denominations, generally holds a stance against abortion. Catholic teachings, influenced by historical papal statements and theological interpretations, argue that abortion is a grave moral disorder. For instance, Psalm 127–3 portrays children as a divine gift, and Jeremiah 1–5 suggests pre-natal recognition by God. These scriptures underscore the belief in the sanctity of life, shaping anti-abortion stances.
• Islamic perspectives – Islam forbids abortion except in cases where the mother’s life is at risk. This stance is derived from Islamic jurisprudence, which prioritises the preservation of life while considering the circumstances surrounding each case.
• Hindu perspectives – Hindu views on abortion vary but often align with the belief in karma and dharma. Some Hindus may support abortion under specific conditions, while others might oppose it based on the belief in the sanctity of life.

The results demonstrate that religious convictions heavily influence abortion laws and attitudes. For example, countries with strong religious ties often have more restrictive abortion laws. These beliefs contribute to policy variations and affect how societies approach abortion.

Impact of legal restrictions on abortion-related health outcomes

The analysis shows that strict legal restrictions on abortion are associated with higher rates of unsafe abortions and poorer health outcomes. Regions with lenient laws generally report better health outcomes, including reduced instances of unsafe procedures. This correlation underscores the importance of legal access to safe abortion services for protecting women’s health.

While the Bible does not explicitly address contemporary issues of abortion issues, interpretations of passages such as This is a scripture reading from Exodus: 21: 22–25:

If men fight, and hurt a woman with child, so that her fruit depart from her, and yet no mischief follow- he shall be surely punished, according as the woman’s husband will lay upon him; and he shall pay as the judges determine. And if any mischief follow, then thou shalt give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for stripe.

The verse addresses the situation where harm is caused to a pregnant woman during a fight, leading to a miscarriage. If no additional harm follows the miscarriage, the punishment is determined by the woman’s husband and the judges. If the woman suffers further injury or death, more severe retributive punishments are mandated. Hence, there should be value for both the foetus and the mother. This distinction provides a basis for discussing how the value of foetal life is balanced against the health and well-being of the mother. Proponents of abortion rights reflect an ancient legal framework that does not necessarily apply to contemporary ethical discussions and foetal rights in relation to the mother’s circumstances.

Comparison of global perspectives on abortion

Global perspectives on abortion reveal significant variation in legal status and cultural attitudes. For example, in the United States, abortion laws are highly polarised, reflecting deep societal divides. In contrast, as mentioned earlier in this article, South Africa has relatively progressive abortion laws but still faces cultural resistance in certain areas. Brazil’s restrictive stance contrasts with the more liberal approaches in some Western countries.

The findings illustrate that abortion remains a contentious issue influenced by local values, legal frameworks and cultural norms. This variability affects the global discourse on abortion and highlights the ongoing debates surrounding this topic. McCloskey’s work on moral reasoning in abortion debates provides insight into how cultural and ethical frameworks shape global attitudes. McCloskey’s analysis helps understand why abortion policies differ so markedly across countries. The study explored how women’s rights and societal views on abortion intersect. In Western contexts, the focus is on individual autonomy and the right to choose, whereas traditional African values emphasise communal responsibility and moral considerations. The evolving African perspective reflects a shift towards individual rights, although traditional values still influence views on abortion. This contrast highlights the ongoing debate between personal freedom and collective values in the context of abortion. Societal views on abortion vary, with some cultures viewing it as morally unacceptable and others as a necessary option in certain circumstances. The study found that societal attitudes are influenced by legal frameworks, cultural norms and religious teachings. In many societies, abortion remains a contentious issue, with differing views on its moral and ethical implications.

Role of international organisations

International organisations play a crucial role in shaping abortion policies by influencing global health standards and advocating for reproductive rights. The WHO and the UN, among others, work to promote safe abortion practices and support women’s health worldwide. Their advocacy contributes to policy changes and public awareness, impacting how countries approach abortion. Recent discussions on social media and news platforms, such as articles from The Guardian and tweets from human rights organisations, reflect growing debates about abortion access and international policies. Social media has amplified the voices of activists and organisations working to promote reproductive rights and has facilitated rapid dissemination of information and mobilisation of support. This increased visibility can pressure governments and international bodies to address abortion-related issues more urgently and comprehensively.

The WHO provides guidelines and support for safe abortion practices as part of its broader mandate to improve global health. The organisation publishes evidence-based guidelines to ensure that abortion services are safe, legal and accessible (WHO 2021). The WHO’s work includes technical support for countries to develop and implement policies that reduce maternal morbidity and mortality associated with unsafe abortions. Their guidelines often address the need for comprehensive sexual and reproductive health services, including access to safe abortion methods and post-abortion care (WHO 2021).

The UN’s various agencies, including the UNFPA, support initiatives aimed at improving reproductive health and rights. They work on integrating reproductive health services into broader health systems, providing technical assistance and advocating for policies that align with international human rights standards (UNFPA 2023). Their efforts are crucial in countries where abortion access is restricted or unsafe practices are prevalent. International organisations advocate for reproductive rights by framing abortion as a fundamental human right and a component of gender equality. The UN Human Rights Council and various treaty bodies, such as the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), highlight the importance of reproductive rights in achieving gender equality and protecting women’s health (United Nations Human Rights Council 2021). Their advocacy includes pressing for legal reforms in countries where restrictive abortion laws are in place and promoting policies that ensure women’s access to safe and legal abortion services.

The UN also plays a role in international agreements and declarations that affirm the right to reproductive health care. For example, the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) Programme of Action, adopted in 1994, outlines commitments to improving reproductive health and rights globally, including safe abortion access (United Nations 1994).

International organisations contribute to policy changes by working with governments, civil society and other stakeholders to advocate for reforms (UNFPA 2023). They provide technical assistance and support to countries in drafting and implementing policies that align with international standards. This support can be crucial in navigating the complex political and social landscapes of different countries. Public awareness campaigns led by these organisations also play a vital role. By using media, educational resources and advocacy campaigns, they work to change public attitudes and increase understanding of reproductive health issues. These efforts help to build support for policy changes and enhance the visibility of abortion-related issues on the global stage. Despite the efforts of international organisations, there are significant challenges and criticisms. Some argue that the policies and guidelines promoted by these organisations may not always account for local cultural, religious or political contexts (United Nations Human Rights Council 2021). This can lead to tensions between global standards and local practices, potentially hindering the implementation of effective abortion policies. The influence of international organisations may be limited in countries with strong anti-abortion sentiments or restrictive laws. In such cases, efforts to promote reproductive rights can face substantial resistance, affecting the overall impact of these organisations’ advocacy and support.

Conclusion

This article has provided a comprehensive analysis of the religious and global perspectives on the abortion debate. The researcher highlighted the complexity and diversity of opinions on the issue. The issue of abortion is deeply intertwined with a range of cultural, religious and legal perspectives. These days, attitudes towards abortion are being influenced by shifting religious doctrines and societal norms. Major religions have shaped legal frameworks regarding abortion. The current landscape shows a marked contrast between progressive policies in some developed nations and restrictive laws in many developing countries. Stringent regulations often lead to unsafe procedures and poor health outcomes. The use of qualitative methods has provided a nuanced understanding of the diverse perspectives on abortion, emphasising the need for culturally sensitive and balanced policies that consider both health and human rights concerns. Engaging in informed dialogue and empathetic policymaking is essential for navigating the ongoing debates surrounding abortion (Creswell 2014). The findings suggest that while there are significant differences in how abortion is viewed and regulated, there are also common themes that can serve as a foundation for future research and policy development. The study concludes by suggesting areas for future research, including the need for more in-depth studies on the role of cultural norms and values in shaping abortion policies and practices.

Acknowledgements

The author declares that no financial or personal relationships inappropriately influenced the writing this article.

H.P.K.-N. the sole author of this research article.

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercia, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or publisher. The author are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.

References