Original Research

Paul’s inclusive missionary theology for people living with disabilities in Kilifi, Kenya

Fednand M. M’bwangi, Gracelidah W. Mwawughanga, Stephen A. Kapinde, Ernest van Eck

Received: 26 June 2025; Accepted: 17 Sept. 2025; Published: 31 Oct. 2025

Copyright: © 2025. The Authors. Licensee: AOSIS.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract

This study investigates how Paul’s Missionary Theology (PMT) in the church at Corinth can enhance the Church Missional Paradigm (CMP) in the Anglican Kilifi Archdeaconry for People Living with Disabilities (PLWD). Limited to the biblical texts of 1 Corinthians 12:1–14 and 2 Corinthians 8:1–9, the study identifies critical focuses on Paul’s inclusive and community-centred theology of mission. The research aimed to explore the current CMP to PLWD in Kilifi Archdeaconry, critically analyse Paul’s approach in Corinth, and examine how these practices could enhance the missional engagement of Kilifi Archdeaconry to PLWD. Guided by Kirk Franklin’s theory of Friendship and Community in the missio Dei, the study employed qualitative research methods including interviews and focus group discussions. The oral sources gathered from 12 respondents, the basis for generating basic, organising and global themes, were analysed using Jennifer Attride’s thematic analysis – a social scientific tool for thematic analysis – to address the question: What has Kilifi Archdeaconry accomplished regarding the mission of PLWD? The research findings reveal a grounded theory, namely, cultural tensions, leadership instability and societal stigmatisation hinder effective inclusive missions to PLWD. However, PMT that emphasises inclusivity in diversity portends the potential for enhancing missional outreach to PLWD by regarding them as crucial members of God’s family.

Contribution: By using Paul’s missionary theology to enhance missional outreach to PLWD, the study contextualises biblical theology in religious traditions in Africa. Similarly, the inclusivity in diversity complements Mojola and Dhunpath’s call for South African organisations to develop disability employment policies for PLWD.

Keywords: Paul’s missionary theology; Church missional paradigm; community, body of Christ; God’s family; People Living with Disabilities; missio Dei; Kenya; South Africa.

Introduction

David Thang Moe, in his article, ‘Themes and methodologies in Pauline missiology for a contemporary world’ (2017:113), following the works of A.J. Hultgren, David Bosch, Krister Stendhal, among other scholars, concluded that ‘… Paul’s missiology (the study of Paul’s concept of mission) and his missionary methodologies (the imitation of Paul’s missionary theories) provides us with some missiological insights of holding theology and practice together.’ ‘Thus, this study is significant as it bridges a critical gap in missional theology by applying Pauline missionary principles to contemporary church engagement with people living with disabilities (PLWDs). The article highlights the urgent need for inclusive church practices that are aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for reducing inequality defined by disabilities (https://www.un.org/en/un75/inequality-bridging-divide#:~:text). The findings of this study are beneficial for churches, theologians and policymakers aiming to design biblically grounded and socially inclusive missional strategies in Africa.

In reference to a methodology, the study employs a qualitative descriptive research design, using interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs) to gather data from church leaders, clergy, youth, elders and PLWDs – a total of 12 respondents in Kilifi Archdeaconry. Qualitative research involves obtaining data from respondents through observation, interview guides, questionnaires, FGDs and participants’ observation. A descriptive research design is used to provide a detailed account of a phenomenon or situation. Descriptive research design is suitable for this research because its main purpose is to describe characteristics, behaviours or conditions without manipulating variables (Singh 2010:4–12). The descriptive research design is chosen for this study because there is a need to analyse issues of mission outreach to PLWDs among Anglican parishes in Kilifi Archdeaconry, Malindi Diocese, whose missional significance was elaborated in the context of ongoing scholarship.

Jennifer Attride’s article ‘Thematic networks: An analytic tool for qualitative research’ (Attride-Stirling 2001:385–405) offered guidelines for thematically analysing field data to generate grounded theory facilitated by basic themes, organising themes and a global theme, as the basis for constructing a grounded theory. These themes collectively provide a basis for grounded theory, namely, cultural tensions, leadership instability and societal stigmatisation hinder effective, inclusive missions to PLWDs. However, Paul’s missionary theology (PMT) for emphasising inclusivity in diversity portends the potential for enhancing missional outreach to PLWDs by regarding them as crucial members of God’s family. Thus, a brief literature review, the social setting of Corinth, experiences of Anglican Church of Kenya (ACK) Kilifi Archdeaconry, Kilifi, Kenya, and enhancing missional outreach to PLWD are explored in support of these findings.

A brief scholarly review

The literature review briefly explores scholarly perspectives on Paul’s centre of theology, church mission, theology of disability and Pauline missiology.

Paul’s centre of theology has greatly influenced Pauline studies. Prior to the Reformation period, Martin Luther (1483–1546, see Figure 1), disputing the doctrine of indulgence and guided by Paul’s Letter to the Romans 1:17, proposed justification by faith as the centre of Paul’s theology (ed. Hillebrand, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Martin-Luther). Later, beyond the 16th century CE, Luther’s position influenced Protestants’ view of Paul’s theology. For instance, James Dunn, guided by E.P Sanders and Krister Stendhal, coined the concept of ‘new perspectives on Paul’ (NPP). Situating his discussion in Paul’s views of the law and conversion, Dunn proposed justification by faith, as Paul’s centre of theology that brings both Jews and Gentiles together in one covenant in Christ Jesus (Dunn 2004:110–130). Besides justification by faith, the Spirit has also informed Paul’s centre of theology.

FIGURE 1: Martin Luther the reformer.

In his article, ‘The theological center of Pauline theology as it relates to the Holy Spirit’, Mark Pretorius, following Dunn, and reading 1 Corinthians 15:20, 23; Romans 8:15.16 and 2 Corinthians 3:18 and Galatians 4:6 in the context of eschatology and pneumatology, regarded Spirit’s indwelling the believers as Paul’s centre of theology (Pretorius 2009:252, 257–261). Noted briefly is a progression in elaboration of Paul’s theology that spans the period of reformation through modern period that prompts the question; how far more should Pauline theology be read and adapted heuristically to elaborate existential realities?

Robra (2019b), in his article, ‘Mission and the people with disabilities’, advocates for listening to marginalised voices in shaping inclusive church missions. Similarly, National Council of Churches of Kenya (NCCK) (1991) urges churches to integrate PLWDs into community life through appropriate facilities and resources. Charles (2019), in his article, ‘The global perspective on disability and mission’, emphasises moving beyond inclusion to belonging by enabling PLWDs to serve within the church.

In the field of disability theology, Creamer (2012), in his article, ‘Disability theology’, just like Swinton (2011) in his article, ‘Who is the God we worship?’, argues for a theology that values the contributions of PLWDs and challenges stigmatising interpretations. Conversely, Eiesland (1994) and McReynolds (2016) highlight the negative theological assumptions that have historically marginalised PLWDs, such as viewing disability as a form of sin or charity.

From a Pauline perspective, Gosbell (2019), in his article, ‘A disability reading of Paul’s use of the “body of Christ” metaphor’, explores how Paul uses bodily imagery in 1 Corinthians to promote unity, while Promise (2020), in his article, ‘An exegetical study of 2 Corinthians 8:1–9’, emphasises Paul’s model of generosity and mission investment.

While these scholars have effectively addressed disability and mission separately or from a general theological viewpoint, none of them have directly read PMT in Corinth (1 Cor 12:1–14; 2 Cor 8:1–9) to enhance contemporary Church Missional Practices (CMP) for PLWD. This study fills this gap by offering a biblically grounded and contextually relevant model as exemplified by the ACK, Kilifi Archdeaconry. Thus, the inclusive mission proposed in this article has a clear theological framework (in Pauline theology) using metaphors such as body, gifts and baptism. It focuses on the context of the Anglican Kilifi Archdeaconry in Kenya, particularly regarding PLWDs. The article connects biblical principles with local social realities to enhance practical applicability. To achieve this goal, comprehensive literary studies on disability, missiology and Pauline theology have been explored. Similarly, multiple data sources such as interviews and FGDs with diverse respondents (clergy, church members, PLWDs) have been used to enrich the oral perspectives of the study. Kirk Franklin’s missio Dei theory has been used to elaborate the significance of the concept of community. The article concludes with actionable suggestions, that is, by recommending structural adjustments, leadership empowerment and community attitude shifts to bridge theology with practical experience.

Social setting in Corinth

Scholars highlight that Corinth was a major Greco-Roman urban centre marked by diversity, social stratification and moral complexity – factors that shaped Paul’s missionary strategies in his first and second letters to the Corinthians.

The city of Corinth and its surroundings

According to David Barret (10 October 2022), the city of Corinth was strategically located at one end of a narrow isthmus joining southern Greece with the Greek mainland. This geographical position gave the city of Corinth advantage to maritime travel and land travel in the region; land traffic moving between southern Greece and the mainland had to pass through the city, and ships travelling between Italy and Asia often chose to have their boats dragged across the isthmus along a track called the diolkos to avoid having to make the dangerous journey around southern Greece. The city enjoyed a long and prestigious history that can be divided into two parts in the year 146 B.C., when it was completely destroyed by the Romans, on the one hand. On the other hand, after this the city lay in ruins for about a 100 years, Emperor Julius Caesar (100–44 BCE) refounded the city and repopulated it with Roman freedmen and Greeks; a large number of Jews resettled there as well. Thus, when Paul first visited the city during his second missionary journey after speaking at Athens (Ac 18), he immediately found an audience with some of those attending the synagogue there. Paul also met Priscilla and Aquila there, who were Jewish tentmakers like himself. Around the time Paul left Corinth for Syria, a man named Apollos moved to Corinth from Ephesus and became an influential leader in the church. Paul eventually returned to Corinth for a few months during his third missionary journey after he was forced to leave Ephesus because of a riot by the silversmiths (Ac 20:1–4) (David P. Barrett, https://biblemapper.com/blog/index.php/2022/10/10/the-city-of-corinth-and-its-surroundings/).

In his article, ‘The city of Corinth and its surrounding’, David Barret claims that Paul wrote at least two letters to the Corinthians, and the moral challenges the believers faced there attest to the very pagan culture of the city of Corinth (1 Cor 5:1–13; 6:12–20; 8:1–13; 10:14–22; 2 Cor 6:14–18). Barret noticed that during the days before the city was destroyed by the Romans, the city had gained such a reputation for debauchery that the term ‘to corinthianize’ meant to engage in sexual immorality, but it is not clear if this reputation continued after the city had been rebuilt. Barret further claims that although the Corinth city itself was not a port city, however, nearby towns of Lechaion and Cenchrea facilitated these purposes for travel and commerce in the region.

FIGURE 2: The city of Corinth.

According to Luke (Ac 18:18; Rm 16:1), during his second missionary journey Paul had his hair cut off at Cenchrea in compliance with a vow he had taken and then he left for Syria. According to Paul’s letter to the Romans, which was probably written from Corinth during his third missionary journey, Paul mentions the church in Cenchrea.

Harris (2005) describes Corinth as a cosmopolitan city, strategically located between two harbours, which contributed to its commercial wealth and cultural pluralism. Gosbell (2019) notes that this diversity created both opportunities and challenges for the Christian mission, especially regarding inclusion and communal identity. Historical background shows that Corinth had been destroyed by the Romans in 146 BCE and rebuilt as a Roman colony in 44 BCE, becoming a hub for trade and political influence (Harris 2005). In terms of culture and religion, Corinth was steeped in Greco-Roman paganism, with widespread worship of deities such as Aphrodite and Apollo. Gosbell (2019) asserts that this religious backdrop led to tensions between Christian moral teachings and prevailing cultural norms. In addition, the intellectual context, influenced by Hellenistic philosophy and rhetoric, challenged Paul to use persuasive communication to articulate Christian values (Harris 2005). Economically, Corinth was wealthy but deeply divided along class lines, which Gosbell (2019) links to Paul’s theological emphasis on unity and mutual support within the church.

Given this social setting, Paul’s use of metaphors such as the body of Christ, baptism and gifts becomes important for emphasising a missional theology of unity and inclusivity in spite of the diversity. But before exploring Paul’s letters to the Corinth regarding his missionary theological strategy, the observations of the experiences of the ACK Kilifi Archdeaconry with the PLWDs are crucial.

Experiences of people living with disabilities at Anglican Church of Kenya Kilifi Archdeaconry, Kenya

It is important to remember that the research question posed to the respondents that generated this section was: What has Kilifi Archdeaconry accomplished regarding the mission to PLWDs? The goal of this section is to describe the missional accomplishments of the ACK Kilifi Archdeaconry to PLWDs. Despite some progress made by the ACK Kilifi Archdeaconry in reaching out to PLWDs, this study revealed that a number of systemic, social and structural challenges continue to hinder the realisation of a fully inclusive and participatory church mission. These challenges emerged from interviews and FGDs conducted across the nine parishes within the Archdeaconry, revealing both the internal weaknesses and external pressures affecting mission effectiveness. The challenges were thematically categorised into six main areas, but for this article they are limited to three: cultural tensions, leadership instability and societal stigmatisation. This section presents these challenges in detail, demonstrating how they collectively hinder the church’s ability to effectively conduct missions to PLWDs.

Cultural tension

Data gathered from respondents indicated that family differences, resistance, religious differences and church politics and boundaries collectively reflected cultural tensions that hindered successful missional efforts to PLWDs.

Family differences and patriarchal hierarchy

Family disagreements, blame-shifting or patriarchal dominance affect the inclusion of PLWDs in church life. In some families, participation in church is not a collective decision, leading to fragmentation in spiritual engagement. For example, during the interview, one of the respondents confirmed that ‘in my family, people are not in agreement – you’ll go to church, I’ll stay behind’ (Participant 3, Clergy, Male). Similarly, a respondent’s claim that ‘some families lock themselves out spiritually, giving excuses [to avoid church attendance] such as ‘I have a child’, or ‘I need to ask my husband’ (Participant 5, Businesswoman, Female)’. These responses reveal how patriarchal hierarchical power conditioned church attendance. Consequently, these findings complement Swinton’s (2011) emphasis for the church to embrace community-based belonging that considers of intra-family dynamics.

Resistance

Cultural perceptions of disability – ranging from shame, taboo or viewing it as a curse – create fear and secrecy. Thus, for fear of public shame, some families hide their PLWD members from the public eye and church engagement. A respondent noticed that:

‘[W]hen we first approached the children alone, they came to church alone. But when the church attempted to reach out to Children’s families, there was resistance – they didn’t want to accept [the invitation]’. (Participant 7, Businessman, Male)

So that means parental resistance played a central role in children’s freedom to attend church services because ‘… the father or mother must firstly approve before the child can come to church’ (Participant 7, Businessman, Male). In this case, beyond Eisland’s (1994) observation of cultural-theological resistance, such as associating disability with sin or purification, resistance is localised in the family; resistance is rooted in the family’s aspirations for honour and fear of societal judgement.

Religious differences

The observation by a respondent that ‘Some people look down on you just because you don’t attend their church’ (Participant 3, Clergy, Male) briefly explains how denominational identity and suspicion between religious groups impede church collaborative efforts for missional outreach to PLWDs. Although Charles (2019) has noticed the advantage of ecumenical missions in promoting inclusivity in missional theology, this study highlights how a denominational pride and exclusivity culture could work against Charles ecumenical inclusivity, thereby discouraging cooperative missional efforts towards PLWDs.

Church politics and boundaries

Furthermore, a respondent’s claim that ‘here you cannot go and preach to the other side without the permission from the pastor in that area’ (Participant 10, Businessman, Male) reveals how the Church hierarchy, power struggles and territorial disputes based on geography and leadership rivalries hinder unified mission efforts.

The brief literature review shows that some scholars, such as Swinton and Charles, focus on theology and pastoral care to embrace mission to PLWDs. But these kinds of church politics and geographical boundaries as obstacles to mission escaped their scrutiny. Thus, cultural tensions – expressed through family disunity, stigma, religious pride and internal church politics – emerge as significant barriers that prevent PLWDs from being fully integrated into church missions.

Leadership instability

To answer the question regarding the missional accomplishment of Kilifi Archdeaconry to PLWDs, it was found that, in addition to cultural tensions, leadership instability caused by clergy transfer, a lack of inclusive vision, weak pastoral care and a lack of support structures similarly hindered successful missional outreach to PLWDs.

Frequent clergy transfers

The claim by a respondent that ‘initially, missions were held every 2 months, but they slowed down because of leadership changes in the Anglican Church, where pastors are rotated frequently’ (Participant 7, Businessman, Male) indicates how rotational leadership practices – where pastors are transferred regularly – disrupt momentum in PLWD missions. This disruption was exacerbated ‘when a leader leaves, [and] the one who comes doesn’t continue with the previous work. This creates gaps in ministry to people with disabilities’ (Participant 6, Businessman, Male). Although it has already been noticed that Swinton (2011) affirms inclusive community-building to cater for a ministry to PLWDs, he does not address the challenge of parochial rotational leadership in African ecclesial contexts.

A lack of inclusive vision

Some leaders do not view PLWDs as capable of performing church missional tasks. They are overlooked, not assigned roles and not given chances to participate in church missions. Respondent (Participant 6, Businessman, Male) opined that:

‘[B]ecause of their disabilities, they [PLWD] are seen like they cannot perform well … most PLWD are sidelined – they haven’t been given space to serve in missions. They are viewed as incapable because of their disabilities.’

This is not only a general observation, but it was specifically observed that ‘so far, Kilifi Archdeaconry has neglected PLWDs. Most mission work focuses only on those who haven’t accepted Christ’ (Participant 4, Photographer, Male). These observations affirm the call of Charles (2019) for church missional practice to move from inclusion to participation – that PLWDs should shape and serve in the church. The study shows a practical failure of leadership to implement this, demonstrating a gap between theological ideals and church praxis.

Weak pastoral care and a lack of support structures

Furthermore, leadership instability was accelerated by weak pastoral care and a lack of support structures. The observation by respondent (Participant 2, Singer, Female) that ‘if the clergy or leaders were more hospitable, it would help PLWD feel a sense of belonging and confidence to come to church’ suggests how the lack of empathy from church leadership could inadvertently lower the self-esteem of PLWDs. Hospitality is vital for boosting empathy because it offers emotional support to a needy person to feel accepted and belonging. Here, these observations resonate with Charles (2019), following a theology of embodiment. Charles theology of embodiment emphasises that the church is a relational body that must make people feel they belong physically and emotionally. In this case, the field data show how weak leadership in pastoral sensitivity could undermine the principle of the theology of embodiment.

Societal stigmatisation

Exclusion based on physical appearance and ability, emotional and social location, and internalised stigma, such as cultural tensions and instability leadership, impede missional outreach to PLWDs.

Exclusion based on physical appearance and ability

People living with disabilities are often perceived as lesser or unworthy participants in church and community life because of their physical impairments. The observation by a respondent that PLWDs are stigmatised because ‘they cannot walk’ (Participant 3, Clergy, Male) or ‘maybe [because of] their disabilities [they] are seen like they cannot perform … what other people are doing’. Another respondent (Participant 6, Businessman, Male) suggested that these perceptions could lead to exclusion, pity or outright avoidance of PLWDs. These respondents echoed Eisland’s observations, who in his article, ‘The disabled God’ (1994), argues that cultural assumptions such as equating disability with sin or inability marginalise PLWDs within faith communities.

Emotional and social isolation

Stigma results in social avoidance, silence, or a cold reception from fellow congregants. The fear expressed by a respondent who is a PLWD asking ‘If I go to church, how will people treat me?’ (Participant 2, Singer, Female) is contrary to the assumption by another respondent that ‘so far, it is like Kilifi Archdeaconry has isolated people living with disabilities’ (Participant 4, Photographer, Male). This contradiction reveals that stigmatisation is both a spiritual and emotional issue emerging from personal and societal responses. Thus, inclusion in the church congregation is important because it helps both individuals and society to reverse the emotional and spiritual effects of stigma. Swinton’s definition of true inclusion, not just as access but as belonging, where people are welcomed emotionally and spiritually (Swinton 2011b), is instructive.

Internalised stigma

The observation that ‘these people [PLWD] have isolated themselves and are unwilling to be ministered to (Participant 5, Businesswoman, Female)’ shows that because of constant rejection or a lack of inclusion, PLWDs begin to internalise inferiority complex, choosing isolation or silence rather than risking public shame or mistreatment. Consequently, avoidance of church pastoral visits is underscored by a respondent’s observation that ‘when a woman was aware of the church’s plans to visit her, she tells them to come another day so she can borrow and put on better clothes’ (Participant 7, Businessman, Male).

In summary, the challenges identified in Kilifi Archdeaconry’s mission to PLWDs are both practical and deeply systemic. Cultural tensions undermine both the church’s ability to respond to needs and the participation of economically struggling PLWDs. Leadership instability – driven by frequent pastoral transfers and inadequate vision – creates gaps in missional continuity. Societal stigmatisation and cultural tensions further isolate PLWDs, fostering shame, resistance and silence. While scholars such as Swinton suggest an inclusive theology and practical embodiment, the realities on the ground show a need for contextually rooted approaches that confront structural, cultural and theological barriers. Therefore, addressing these challenges is essential if the church is to live out its calling as a community of belonging and empowerment for all, especially PLWDs, as supported by biblical texts analysed in the next section.

A brief textual analysis of 1 and 2 Corinthians

Gifts and services (Charismata)

One of the focal texts for expounding PMT presents Paul declaring that:

[T]here are varieties of gifts, but the same Spirit; and there are varieties of services, but the same Lord; and there are varieties of activities, but it is the same God who activates all of them in everyone.’ (1 Cor 12:4–6)

According to Barrett, Paul’s claim in this text signifies that spiritual gifts differ in function and visibility, but all originate from the same divine source – Father, Son, and Spirit – and are meant for the benefit of the whole community (Barrett 1971:284). By implication, Paul’s Trinitarian missionary theology is explained on account of the function of the gifts and services that originate from God the Father. The Holy Spirit facilitates these gifts and services among believers to serve the interest of Jesus Christ in the Church. Thus, Paul insists that no gift is greater than another in value or significance; what matters is their shared purpose for the common good (v. 7). This position whereby the gifts and services collectively promote Trinitarian missional function, counters the Corinthian tendency to elevate showy gifts such as tongues while ignoring the quieter, yet equally essential, ministries such as helping the needy or performing administrative duties for the well-being of the community.

Baptism

Paul noticed that ‘For in one Spirit we were all baptized into one body – Jews or Greeks, slaves or free – and all were made to drink of one Spirit’ (1 Cor 12:13). This signifies that baptism is the spiritual entry point into a unified community, regardless of race, status or background. Gosbell’s observation that Paul uses baptism as a symbol of radical equality and shared identity in Christ, nullifying social distinctions (Gosbell 2019:199), points to the Christocentric function of PMT, whose significance to the church’s missional undertaking is expounded by the metaphor of the body of Christ. Thus, Gosbell suggests that Paul regards baptism as both a spiritual transformation and a public declaration that every believer belongs fully and equally within the church.

The metaphor of the body

Besides the Baptism, Paul refers to a metaphor of the body in 1 Corinthians 12:12–27 to portray the church as one body with many members, each having unique roles; ‘Now you are the body of Christ and individually members of it’ (v. 27). Ashley (2006:146) aptly explains that this metaphor emphasises ‘interdependence and mutual honor’, where no member is superior or inferior. He further argues that verses 22–24 emphasise that even those members of the church considered to be ‘weaker’ or ‘less honorable’ are indispensable and deserving of greater care. By implication, Paul uses the image of the body to envision a Christocentric theological perspective of an inclusive community, where diversity is celebrated and every person contributes meaningfully.

Generous fellowship and solidarity (2 Cor 8:1–9)

Beyond the body metaphor, Paul views the church as a generous fellowship and solidarity. To this end, Paul claims that the gift is acceptable according to what one has, not according to what one does not have (2 Cor 8:1–13). In this context, Paul seems to be saying, ‘I do not mean that there should be relief for others and pressure on you, but it is a question of a fair balance’. According to Promise (2020:27), the meaning of Paul’s claim here is that Christian giving is not about giving equal amounts, but it is more about equal concern, where those with more are invited to share voluntarily so that those with less may have their needs met. Thus, Paul is not enforcing charity but encouraging a spirit of mutual responsibility based on Christ’s sacrificial giving. By implication, this text reflects a theology of solidarity and fellowship, where the church embodies justice, equity and shared well-being as a visible sign of its unity in Christ. Beyond his regard for the church as a generous fellowship and solidarity, Paul proposes a theological perspective of servant leadership.

Servant leadership

Paul, underscoring his view of servant leadership in 2 Corinthians 4, 5 claims that ‘we do not proclaim ourselves; we proclaim Jesus Christ as Lord and ourselves as your slaves for Jesus’ sake’. According to Ashley (2006:153), in this case, Paul suggests that Christian leadership is rooted in humility, service and self-denial, not status or personal glory. Ashley goes further to notice that in this verse, Paul positions himself not as a superior figure but as a servant of the community, modelling leadership that uplifts others and points them towards Christ (Ashley 2006:153). Given the social setting of Corinth as already observed earlier, in contrast to the Corinthian culture that celebrated power, eloquence and prestige, Paul redefines authority through a theological lens of servanthood, sacrifice and gospel-centredness, inviting leaders to serve rather than dominate.

In the socially fragmented and status-conscious city of Corinth, Paul masterfully uses metaphors such as the body of Christ, baptism, gifts, services, generous fellowship and servant leadership to envision a theological perspective that dismantles divisions and re-imagines community life. In a culture where wealth, eloquence and social rank determine one’s value, Paul presents a radically inclusive vision: all believers, regardless of ability, status or background, are baptised into one body and endowed with spiritual gifts for the good of all. By portraying the church as a body where even the ‘weaker’ members are indispensable, Paul gives dignity to those marginalised, such as the poor, the unskilled or those with disabilities. Through his emphasis on servant leadership, he subverts Corinth’s obsession with dominance, modelling leadership as humility and service. His call for generous fellowship further challenges economic inequality by urging believers to care for one another’s needs as an act of justice, not charity. In essence, Paul’s missional theological perspective transforms the church into a counter-cultural community of mutual belonging, where every person matters and contributes meaningfully to the life and mission of the Church.

Enhancing missional outreach to people living with disabilities

This section examines PMT, grounded and anchored on gifts, baptism and inclusion as read in the church missional context to PLWDs in the ACK Kilifi Archdeaconry. Although it has been observed that cultural tensions, leadership instability and societal stigmatisation collectively hinder effective missions to PLWDs, Paul’s missionary theological perspective that emphasises inclusivity and unity in diversity portends the potential for enhancing church missional outreach to PLWDs by regarding them as crucial members of the community. The discussion is elaborated by Kirk Franklin’s theory of Friendship and Community in the missio Dei (Franklin 2017).

Spiritual gifts (Charismata) – 1 Corinthians 12:4–11

Paul insists that the Holy Spirit gives diverse gifts to all believers ‘for the common good’ (1 Cor. 12:7). These gifts are not based on social status, ability or class. As already noted, PLWDs are often perceived as lacking the capacity to contribute; ‘they have been sidelined and not given the chance to serve’ (Participant 6, Businessman, Male) This sidelining of PLWDs reflects cultural bias, not theological truth. The Spirit’s giving of diverse gifts implies that even the PLWDs who are endowed with the Spirit of God possess the capacity to participate in missio Dei. Consequently, missio Dei, as a Latin reference to the Church’s mission as originating from God, implies that the church does not create its mission but rather ought to respond to God’s demands and designs for a mission that is primarily accomplished through Jesus Christ who in turn sends the Holy Spirit of truth (Jn 14:16–17, 26; 15:26; 16:13) to guide the church, as a community of believers. This affirms Franklin’s call that true community honours every individual’s gift (Franklin 2017). Similarly, to enforce community solidarity, Gosbell (2019) interprets Paul’s metaphor of the body to affirm the indispensability of each member, particularly those considered ‘weaker’. Similarly, to embrace the indispensability of each other in God’s mission, Maluki (2020) urges the church to create platforms for children with disability to serve and grow spiritually.

Baptism – 1 Corinthians 12:13

Paul’s view that ‘For we were all baptized by one Spirit into one body … whether Jews or Greeks, slaves or free …’ appreciates the inclusion of PLWDs in the administration of Church services. However, the field data observation that ‘they[PLWD] haven’t been given a chance to serve … they have been forgotten’ (Participant 4, Photographer, Male), shows that the contrary practice has been the case at ACK Kilifi archdeaconry. Franklin’s perspective of missio Dei lens that regards baptism as symbolising belonging to God’s family, where relational community must be prioritised (Franklin 2017), contextualises 1 Corinthians 12:13 into the church as a family of God where PLWDs not only have God-given right to belong but could also shape the Church missional theology. Consequently, Swinton (2011b) contends that the theology of disability must begin with belonging, not benevolence. Baptism marks that spiritual belonging, which the church must uphold practically.

Inclusion and the missional ethic of giving – 2 Corinthians 8:1–9

Paul highlights the generosity of the Macedonians, who gave ‘even beyond their ability’ to support the church in Jerusalem. Paul links this act to Christ, ‘who became poor so that you might become rich’ (v. 9). This resonates with Franklin’s perspective of missio Dei in which he claims Church mission must go beyond spiritual encouragement to embrace tangible acts of inclusion – giving resources, affirming identities, and empowering marginalised members (Franklin 2017). The Kilifi Archdeaconry has been challenged to honour PLWDs as resources for boosting Church missions because of their identity not only as members of the body of Christ but also as members of God’s family. Thus, Promise’s regard of 2 Corinthians 8:1–9 as a call to invest both materially and relationally in mission (Promise 2020) underscores the vital role of empowering PLWDs, as members of God’s family, to participate actively in Church missions.

Paul’s missional theology has the potential to enhance the church’s missional outreach of the ACK Kilifi Archdeaconry to PLWDs, primarily in three key areas: church structures, leadership and congregations. The church is encouraged to embrace leadership development programmes that would empower PLWDs to take on leadership roles, despite lingering societal biases. Congregational attitudes ought to be shaped through initiatives that promote unity, friendship and mutual respect, fostering a Christ-centred community that values all members equally as members of God’s family.

Conclusion

The article concludes that Pauline missionary theology provides a transformative and practical framework for enhancing the church’s mission to PLWDs. By embracing Paul’s missionary perspectives grounded in the Body of Christ, baptism, spiritual gifts, generous fellowship and servant leadership, the church is called to strive for inclusive missional strategies that depict the church as a community where every member is valued, included, empowered and allowed to participate in church missional efforts. In the context of Kilifi Anglican Archdeaconry, these theological insights directly address the social, cultural and structural challenges that hinder PLWDs from full participation in church life.

To generalise the findings, the article postulates that when churches anchor their theologies of mission in biblical principles and respond sensitively to local realities, they can move beyond token inclusion towards genuine belonging and shared missional purpose. This finding invites the wider church to adopt a Christ-centred, inclusive missional paradigm that reflects the heart of the gospel in both its doctrinal and praxis perspectives. To strengthen the practical applicability of these recommendations, comparison in church missional enterprise between ACK Kilifi Archdeaconry and other parts of Africa is crucial. This comparative study may include critical use of Pauline missionary strategies to evaluate the role of educational systems, cultures and politics of inclusion in enforcing societal stigmatisation and leadership instability to provide a holistic understanding of the barriers to the inclusion of PLWDs.

For instance, if these suggestions are critically applied in South Africa in pursuit of 2030 UN SDGs with the objective to eradicate social inequalities, the trends noticed by Majola and Dhunpath (2016:27), namely, the absence of workplace disability employment policies, could be reversed as well as demonstrate the efficacy of Paul’s inclusive missional strategies for transforming African colonial inherited legal systems. Similarly, a critical use of Paul’s inclusive missional strategy explored in this article to evaluate women’s contribution to education in Africa, could advance a transformative and inclusive theological education in Africa, as envisioned recently by Linda Naicker in her article, ‘The role of the circle of concerned African women theologians in engendering theological higher education in Africa’ (2024).

Collectively pointed out by these suggestions is the efficacy of Pauline missional strategy in dealing with structures of power that harness inequality in society, for instance through stigma. To explore how societal power structures, sustain stigma, whether in Church or in public educational institutions or government policies, there is need to consider contextual adaptation of Pauline missional theology. To this end, there is a need to develop a clear, actionable strategy for churches, educational institutions and government ministries to operationalise Pauline principles, such as developing training programmes, suggesting structural modifications and outlining community engagement plans.

Acknowledgements

This article is based on research originally conducted as part of Gracelidah Wakesho Mwawughanga Master of Arts in Religious Studies thesis titled ‘The Role of Paul’s Church Missionary Practice in Corinth in Enhancing Ack Kilifi Arch-Deaconry Missional Paradigm to People Living with Disability’, submitted to the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Pwani University, Kilifi, Kenya in 2025. The thesis was supervised by Fednand Manjewa M’bwangi and Stephen Asol kapinde. The manuscript has since been revised and adapted for journal publication. The original thesis is currently unpublished and was not publicly available online at the time of publishing this article.

The author acknowledges the contribution of Prof Ernest van Eck for accepting this article to be funded by the Africa Platform for New Testament Project.

The authors of this publication received research funding from the University of Pretoria under the Africa Platform for New Testament Scholars project, which is developing products related to the research described in this publication. In addition, the authors serve as consultants to the University of Pretoria and receive compensation for their services. The terms of this arrangement have been reviewed and approved by the University of Pretoria under the Africa Platform for New Testament Scholars project in accordance with its policy on objectivity in research.

F.-M.M, in his capacity as the corresponding author and first supervisor of G.W.M.’s Master of Religious Studies Project (Christian Option), guided the process of writing including reviewing the original manuscript written by G.W.M. to make sure that the article complied with Theologia Viatorum publishing policies and also sustained coherence. G.W.M., in her capacity as the second author, collected and analysed the primary field data that were extracted from her Master of Arts in Religious Project (Christian Option) to produce the original manuscript for this article. S.A.K., in his capacity as third author provided co-supervision for G.W.M.’s Master of Arts in Religious Studies Project; E.v.E., in his capacity as the fourth author, facilitated the publication fees for this manuscript as part of the Africa Platform for New Testament Scholars Project.

Ethical approval to conduct this study was obtained from Pwani University Institutional Scientific and Ethics Review Committee (SERC/MA/014/2022). The approval period is 8th December, 2022 – 7th December, 2023.

This research received funding for paying publication fees only from the University of Pretoria under the Africa Platform for New Testament Scholars project, directed by Prof Ernest Van Eck, grant project number 2400030.

The data for the manuscript were extracted from Gracelidah Mwawughanga’s Masters of Arts in Religious Project that will be available at Pwani University thesis repository from 2026.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. The article does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.

References