Abstract
This article addresses the need for chaplains to be involved in South African public schools to accommodate students who are experiencing or witnessing acts of ancestral callings or manifestations of ancestral spirits in schools. The data gathered in this research among students and teachers are analysed to assess whether African traditional religion (ATR) is disadvantaged or discriminated against, leading to potential conflicts that arise in schools because of manifestations of ancestral callings.
Contribution: Therefore, the article attempts to offer a solution to this problem and to advocate for a holistic approach to religious inclusivity in South Africa’s complex religious landscape.
Keywords: ancestral callings; spiritual possession; ATR; African traditional religion; chaplaincy services; South African; public schools.
Introduction
Ancestral callings are defined as spiritual gifts conveyed by ancestors from the spiritual realm to a spiritually gifted individual in the physical world (cf. Thwala & Edwards 2021:70). In African spirituality, ancestors are believed to possess the ability to gift individuals with spiritual abilities that facilitate communication between the physical and spiritual realms (cf. Sigida & Sodi 2023:2). This suggests that the gifted individual will possess the ability to communicate with ancestors, transmitting messages from the ancestors to those in the physical realm and vice versa.
This ancestral gift can be granted to both children and adults, mostly manifesting in signs such as screaming, loud burping at irregular intervals, fainting and frequent dreaming (cf. Kubeka 2016:17). Thus, when a spiritually gifted individual encounters most of these signals, it indicates that the ancestors seek to connect.
For most individuals, religion provides a fundamental element of existence, directing individuals on their spiritual paths and shaping ethical behaviour (cf. Beyers 2023:7). While religion holds significance for many, it can also incite conflict because of ignorance or a lack of understanding of other faith beliefs and practices (cf. Maregere 2011:19). Religious conflicts may periodically undermine the importance of religion in educational environments, prompting enquiries about the necessity of these debates and the value of religious practices and teachings in schools. Thus, this research seeks to underscore the importance of practising and teaching religion in schools.
Discrimination against certain religious practices in schools
Religion in schools has long been debated, with some individuals feeling that their faith is discriminated against or suppressed. Although African traditional religion (ATR) is considered one of the minority religions in South Africa (7.8%), with Christianity being the majority adherent religion (cf. Census 2022:26), 60% of black South African Christians, especially those living in townships, engage in or uphold ancestral traditions (cf. Zimba & Nomngcoyiy 2022:189). African traditional religion is one of the religions that are marginalised in South Africa (cf. Mndende 2013:74). In recent years, South Africa has experienced an increase in school students displaying behaviours indicative of ancestral callings (cf. Mabvurira & Matlou 2025). Some students were sent home from school for failing to adhere to uniform regulations, as they wore traditional attire, including items such as traditional beads and headbands, according to The Star online news reports (cf. Tshuma 2022).
In ATR, traditional beads function as a link between the physical and spiritual realms (cf. Rai, Singh & Neelabh 2024:1), thus emphasising the significance of certain traditional attire that students may wear at school. The expulsion of certain learners for wearing traditional beads and headbands raises questions about the inclusion of ATR practices in schools.
In certain instances, such as the one at Mzamomtsha Primary School in Cape Town, several students reportedly collapsed during assembly, with others attributing the occurrences to spiritual possession (cf. Cawe 2022).1 During the same event, News24 documented traditional healers burning impepho2 as paramedics remained on standby to assist the schoolchildren (cf. Mkalipi 2022).3 In this documentation, parents attributed the reasons for these incidents to malevolent spirits.
The responses of school staff to events of ancestral callings
The occurrences of ancestral callings traumatise certain teachers, and no one possesses the knowledge to assist the learners. According to documented school incidents reported in articles from SowetanLive, News24 and Independent Online News (IOL), in which children display religious behaviours in educational environments, teachers are reported to be ineffective in providing assistance, while traditional healers are reported to perform more effectively.
SowetanLive reported an incident in which a teenager was expelled from school and advised to seek enrolment in a specialised school because of ancestral possessions that appeared as frequent episodes of fainting.4 Reporter Chabalala (2025) asserted that the child returned to school because of the initiatives of the Gauteng Department of Education. The mother stated that upon her daughter’s initial fainting episodes, she informed the school principal, who responded by quoting scripture from the Bible and asserting that ‘this is a Christian school’ and that her child would become a subject of mockery. The mother further noted that the principal indicated that if the child fainted again, they would disregard the incident and proceed with their duties as if nothing had occurred.
In this incident, a school principal approached an event of African spirituality with the Bible, while IOL News recorded teachers being annoyed by learners who displayed acts of ancestral worship (cf. IOL News 2022).5 Mkalipi (2022) recorded an incident in which teachers were traumatised and did not know what to do when learners displayed acts of ancestral callings. In all the highlighted events of ancestral callings, the way teachers have responded is questionable in terms of their knowledge and confidence in assisting when a child manifests acts of ancestral callings.
Objectives and aims
In response to the rising events of ancestral callings, the discrimination of ATR practices in schools and the trauma experienced by teachers and learners who are uninformed of these practices and beliefs, the objective of this study is to gather data through empirical research and to analyse the data in order to provide sufficient information and make relevant recommendations to address this problem. To achieve the objectives of this study, the following methodology will be employed.
Existing literature on chaplaincy services in schools
In South Africa, public schools are not mandated to employ chaplains. This is because the Constitution and the South African Schools Act authorise optional religious observances, allowing a school’s governing board to authorise religious activities at its discretion (cf. DBE policy on Religion and Education 57). The policy states that these services must be optional for learners and staff, administered equally and should not constitute a fundamental aspect of the school’s instructional mission.
There is limited scholarly data that focuses on ATR and its inclusion in chaplaincy, particularly focusing on public schools. However, Mabe (2020) emphasises the necessity for South African government hospitals to attend to patients’ religious and spiritual requirements, given that healthcare personnel may lack proficiency in this domain. This would mean that the Department of Health (DoH) needs to include healthcare chaplaincy and embrace a holistic, patient-centred methodology to address these requirements more effectively.
Danbolt et al. (2019) examine the spiritual trauma of official first responders, highlighting the necessity of integrating spirituality into their therapeutic interventions. Their research demonstrates that spirituality profoundly impacts mental health and examines the obstacles encountered by these responders, including scepticism about therapy and the pressures of masculinity and heroism. Wessels and Bredenkamp (2009) delineate chaplaincy, its historical background and modern functions, highlighting the transformation of chaplains from ordained clergy to non-ordained personnel operating in diverse situations, such as military and hospital institutions.
All these writers underscore the importance and functions of a chaplain, while highlighting the need for the spiritual and religious guidance that chaplains may provide in various places where they may operate. Among these writers, Moyo (2013) criticises the predominance of Western knowledge systems in shaping pastoral theology in Africa, frequently disregarding the significant contributions of African indigenous knowledge systems grounded in ATRs. Moyo promotes the use of ATR in pastoral care, emphasising its contextual significance and prospective advantages for carers.
Research methods and design
As part of the methodology, the article will: (1) reference existing literature related to chaplaincy services; (2) utilise a mixed-method approach, using qualitative and quantitative methodologies; (3) collect data via interviews and questionnaires; and (4) apply inferential and descriptive statistics as tools to analyse the data collected.
Learner responses will focus on the causes of ancestral calling and identify who can assist when a learner exhibits such behaviours. As teachers are the foremost and immediate source of contact for learners in schools, they will be given an opportunity to express their comfort levels in assisting both learners exhibiting ancestral callings and those who experience confusion and possibly trauma when witnessing this phenomenon. All responses will be analysed to ascertain whether it is necessary for schools to consider acquiring the services of chaplains to provide the necessary assistance to teachers and learners where the phenomenon of ancestral calling is observed and to assess its effects on both teachers and learners.
Sampling method for quantitative and qualitative approach
The researcher chose a sample of three South African schools that had experienced ancestral callings or harmful religious experiences in the past, interviewing 56 participants: 40 learners and 16 teachers. Based on their responses, data were created and analysed in terms of the frequency of these occurrences, whom they may concern, where and at what time they usually occur and, most importantly, who helps when these events occur. The data were then used to produce the research outcomes.
For the qualitative approach, the researcher chose high school learners and teachers to represent a range of viewpoints and experiences regarding ancestral callings and strange religious practices. All participants were interviewed based on their experiences and life stories, which gave various stakeholders a voice and offered rich qualitative data.
Data gathering
For a quantitative approach, a thorough interview or questionnaire was designed to gather data on the frequency and trends of ancestral calling and strange religious practices among high school students who have experienced or witnessed such practices at school. These interviews were conducted as part of a pilot test prior to the main study to determine their validity and reliability.
Semi-structured interviews and focus groups were used to gather qualitative data. Participants used these techniques to discuss their experiences, convictions and opinions regarding ancestral calling and strange religious practices. Audio recordings and thorough field notes were also taken to ensure proper transcription.
Data analysis
The quantitative data gathered were assessed using inferential and descriptive statistics. This investigation illuminated the possible causes of ancestral calling and strange religious practices in South African schools. The theoretical framework for analysing these data was the social constructionist perspective. This approach emphasises the social and cultural factors that shape individuals’ beliefs, attitudes and behaviours within a specific context, such as in South African schools.
Thematic analysis, which includes finding recurrent themes and patterns in the data, was used to evaluate the qualitative data. This type of investigation clarified the underlying causes, drivers and effects of ancestral callings and harmful religious practices in South African schools through precise coding and categorisation, while carefully analysing the kind of help offered to children during religious events.
Ethical considerations
Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the University of Pretoria Research Ethics Committee. The ethical clearance number is T089/23. Ethics is essential throughout the entire study process. All participants provided informed consent, and their names and anonymity were safeguarded. Any potential risks to study participants were minimised, and the study’s design and methodology adhered to ethical standards.
Results
Responses from participants and discussions
The researcher interviewed 56 participants, of whom 40 were school learners and 16 were teachers from three different schools in Gauteng. The schools included Mamelodi Secondary, Mpumelelo Secondary and Winnie Mandela Secondary.
The first step involved gathering data through focus groups, individual interviews and survey questionnaires. The survey questions investigated the prevalence and impact of religious practices and ancestral beliefs.
The study found that 27 learners experienced ancestral callings, while 13 learners and 16 teachers witnessed events of ancestral callings (see Table 1).
Learners’ responses
Learners were asked:
Question: What are the causes of ancestral callings?
The leading cause of ancestral manifestation, as highlighted by school learners who have experienced ancestral callings, is the passing of a message by ancestors. Ancestors communicate with individuals in a variety of ways; therefore, when a message needs to be conveyed, it may be done through dreams, visions, possession by ancestors or by inflicting an illness or causing an individual to experience adversity to draw their attention (cf. Thobakgale, Ngunyulu & Mulaudzi 2024:1).
This means that passing a message can involve telling a learner that they need to initiate to become a traditional healer (cf. Edwards, Hirst & Booi 2014). At times, ancestral manifestation is influenced by environmental factors affecting spiritually gifted students at school. Spiritually gifted individuals tend to absorb excessive energy, especially negative energy, which can trigger ancestral communication as a warning (cf. Heylighen 2012:7). Therefore, any manifestation is triggered by the need for ancestors to communicate for different reasons.
Following this response, learners were asked:
Question: Who usually helps learners when they are in a trance state?6
Most learners who experienced ancestral callings across all schools, that is 20/27 (74%) mentioned that other students help their fellow students when in a trance.
At Mamelodi Secondary School, a student stated, ‘My friend once bit me when I was attempting to assist her.’
Four out of 27 (15%) of learners who experienced ancestral callings stated that a worker at their school who is knowledgeable about ancestral callings assists them when they are in a trance state.
Three out of 27 (11%) learners have seen a teacher helping learners in this state.
The results demonstrate that learners are the primary source of support for peers undergoing trance states associated with ancestral callings, with 74% indicating peer assistance. A minority reported receiving help from a school worker familiar with ancestral callings (15%) or from educators (11%). This evidence highlights the necessity for structured professional support to effectively assist these learners, as indicated in Table 2, which shows that learners feel more comfortable communicating with a professional than with any other individual at school (refer to Table 2).
| TABLE 2: Responses of participants regarding whom they are comfortable speaking with following an ancestral manifestation at school. |
Among the 13 learners who witnessed events of ancestral callings, 8/13 (61%) have seen learners assisting other learners. In contrast, the other 5/13 (39%) do not pay attention to who offers help to learners displaying acts of ancestral callings.
Learners predominantly assist others during a trance, as indicated by the responses. One may assert that learners are not professionally qualified to manage situations where a child exhibits behaviours indicative of ancestral calling, such as fainting, sobbing or shouting. Many of these learners possess some understanding, but a professional may perform far better and prevent other learners from discriminating against those who are spiritually endowed while providing spiritual guidance and emotional support.
Question: With whom are you comfortable speaking following an ancestral manifestation at school?
According to learners’ responses from different religions, the majority in the three religions accessed in this study prefer to speak with a professional, such as a chaplain, rather than to their teachers, parents or friends, or not speaking at all. This highlights the necessity for a religious leader in public schools.
Teachers
All educators from the three schools originated from a Christian background. Educators were asked: How can you classify the religious events happening at school? This question examined teachers’ understanding of religious events or ancestral callings. The following were their responses:
- Three teachers (3/16; 18.75%) regard these incidents as funny things.
- Six (6/16; 37.5%) stated that they do not understand these events.
- Four (4/16; 25%) regard them as ancestral calling possessions.
- Three (3/16; 18.75%) regard these incidents as demonic.
The teachers’ responses clearly indicated a gap in understanding regarding the spiritual experiences of pupils at school.
Following this examination, the teachers were asked the following question: Are you confident in assisting learners displaying acts of ancestral callings?
When enquired about their self-confidence in assisting learners with ancestral calling, 12 (75%) teachers stated that they do not have confidence in helping the learners and do not know how to approach this phenomenon.
Educator perspectives on how learners should be assisted
Question to teachers: How should learners who exhibit ancestral callings be assisted?
Among the three schools, two out of 16 (12.5%) teachers had confidence in assisting learners encountering spiritual manifestations.
Although most educators lack confidence in assisting in these circumstances, 7/16 (43.75%) of teachers contend that the issue originates in the home environment. Consequently, parental involvement is deemed essential in collaboration with the school to identify which children possess genuine potential and which do not. This approach would facilitate the management of children who may be disingenuous. Furthermore, parents can guide teachers on addressing their children’s needs, which can be documented in a school notebook.
Five teachers (31.25%) believe that a professional addressing these incidents would perform significantly better and provide superior guidance to children and their parents on preventing and treating learners in such situations.
Two out of 16 (18.75%) assert that it would be beneficial for teachers to attend workshops or training sessions designed to instruct and advise them on managing religious activities that may disturb students at school.
One out of 16 (6.25%) indicated that students should proceed to commence the activities and return to school upon completion. Parents of learners should seek clarity regarding the signs and address the issue before they return after it is resolved.
Most educators supported a partnership with parents or parental engagement to address this issue.
Therefore, because a teacher may be responsible for managing a class of over 25 students in a public school, which, when combined with parental engagement and the teacher’s responsibilities, necessitates additional time, it would be more work for the teacher. Consequently, a specialist in these circumstances may be more crucial for time management and for the educational and spiritual development of children.
The adoption of chaplaincy services in public schools
Religious affiliation census (2022:26) shows that 7.8% of the South African population adheres to traditional African religions, while 84.5% are Christians. Masango and Mkhathini (2016:2) assert that in correctional services, Christianity was the predominant faith among inmates at 77%, while believers of ATR constituted a markedly lower 11%. Islam placed third at 6%, closely followed by an unspecified category termed ‘others’ at 5.5%. Buddhism accounted for 0.4%, while Hinduism represented 0.1%.
Census South Africa’s acknowledgement of ATR signifies its recognition as an official religion in South Africa. Masondo (2011:33) contends that a correlation has existed between ATR and the South African government since 1994. African traditional religion is the second most widely practised religion in South Africa; yet there is a lack of chaplains within this tradition compared to other religions.
Ancestral callings are inherently embedded in ATR spirituality (cf. Mashabela 2024). While the approaches of chaplains from various faiths may be inclusive of other religions, there is a distinct requirement for a spiritual leader or healer from ATR in schools. This is because chaplains of other faith traditions may not comprehend aspects profoundly entrenched in African spirituality, as this is beyond their area of expertise. Conversely, leaders from ATR may lack an understanding of the tenets of other faith traditions.
The empirical data indicate that 74% of learners exhibiting ancestral callings in schools receive assistance from their peers during an ancestral event. Individuals assisting those exhibiting ancestral callings lack expertise, which may lead to incidents such as the occurrence in Mamelodi, where a learner in a trance7 bit their helper. Most learners from the three faiths examined in this study (ATR, Christianity and a combination of the two religions) indicated that they would be more comfortable consulting a professional or chaplain during instances of religious manifestations. Teachers, however, demonstrate less trust in their capacity to assist students demonstrating ancestral callings, along with a limited understanding of such phenomena.
The empirical data from the responses of participants and the events of ancestral callings recorded in news articles by reporters such as Mkalipi (2022), where students fainted, causing trauma among teachers, and traditional healers were present to assist students, highlight a need for a chaplain in ATR to assist learners displaying acts of ancestral callings in schools. Traditional healers and spiritual leaders from ATR often possess crucial cultural knowledge on how to deal with ancestral callings (cf. Singh & Bhagwan 2020:409).
However, Khalo (2022) contends that chaplains from the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) generally embody Christianity, Islam and Hinduism, but ATR has been excluded because of the absence of official qualifications or institutional recognition. Masango and Mkhathini (2016:2) contend that the absence of ATR from opportunities to serve in governmental positions and assist its followers indicates a persistent misunderstanding of ATR, perhaps coercing members to convert for institutional recognition and therefore suppressing ATR as a religion.
This underscores the necessity for the government to acknowledge all religions inclusively, particularly in the context of public employment, while also catering to members of the second-largest religious group in the nation.
The practical responsibilities of a chaplain in African traditional religion
Timmins et al. (2018:103) assert that chaplains provide spiritual direction, counselling and attentive listening to people in diverse environments such as schools, hospitals, military units, correctional facilities or businesses. A chaplain in ATR can function similarly to a chaplain in other faiths, such as Christianity, by providing guidance in faith and healing while integrating ATR teachings, including ancestral beliefs. This initiative can assist schools by decreasing ancestral manifestations of ancestral callings, as it will be the chaplain’s responsibility to communicate with parents and counsel children on appropriate actions to take before attending school to prevent manifestations, as well as to guide post-school activities until the child is prepared to initiate their journey as a traditional healer or manage their own manifestations.
In addition, when children exhibit behaviours indicative of ancestral callings, a chaplain may typically need to support them emotionally and sometimes explain what could be happening to them. A chaplain may also assist with legal and religious matters and guide the parents in adhering to appropriate procedures.
Who can or must be a chaplain in African traditional religion?
A chaplain can be a knowledgeable individual in African spirituality and have religious, psychological and social work qualifications. Other religions may describe a chaplain as a pastor; however, in ATR or African spirituality, there is no pastor. A leader is not limited to being a pastor but may be a spiritual leader, a healer or a spiritualist (cf. Okeke & Ugochukwu 2021).
Although all chaplains possess theological competence (cf. Timmins et al. 2018:103), institutions must be inclusive and hire chaplains specialised in African spirituality. Freedom of religion in South Africa signifies that all faiths must be treated equally under the law (cf. Coertzen 2014:140); thus, possibilities afforded to some religions should not marginalise others, to avoid fervent individuals in spiritual guidance converting to different religions to function as spiritual healers.
This means that it is essential to note that ATR differs from other religions in many ways. Therefore, this may necessitate a different approach when dealing with leaders from ATR. An inclusive approach could accommodate those proficient in spiritual healing who have an extensive understanding of African spirituality, supplemented by a qualification from a recognised higher institution. The government may need to acknowledge a single entity responsible for ATR and establish norms or regulations to be adhered to when collaborating with the state, rather than marginalising all parties involved.
The government may establish ethical behaviour or standards for ATR as a religion, specifying acceptable and inappropriate acts. It may then instruct persons seeking to become spiritual healers within ATR to comply with these ethical standards.
Ultimately, incorporating chaplaincy, particularly for ATR practitioners, signifies a forward-thinking advancement in establishing genuinely inclusive organisations. It acknowledges the validity of African spirituality, mitigates the marginalisation of minority religions and prepares educational institutions and businesses to address the spiritual needs of all persons efficiently. As South Africa navigates its diverse religious landscape, adopting inclusive models will foster social cohesion, protect individual dignity and ensure that no one is forced to choose between their spiritual identity and public participation.
Conclusion
This study has elucidated the interaction of religion, culture and institutional structures within South African educational settings, focusing specifically on ATR and ancestral callings. The findings highlight the pressing need for more inclusive policies and procedures that acknowledge and address the events of ancestral callings in schools. The research indicates that prevailing methods, frequently based on predominant religious traditions, inadequately address or assist learners and employees encountering ancestral manifestations, resulting in many lacking suitable guidance or assistance.
The research endorses the use of chaplaincy as an effective means of promoting religious inclusivity in schools. The appointment of chaplains or spiritual leaders from ATR alongside those from other faiths enables organisations to deliver culturally competent spiritual care, enhance religious diversity and cultivate mutual respect and understanding. This inclusion tackles urgent issues such as the absence of appropriate support for students with ancestral callings and upholds the fundamental right to religious freedom and expression as established in South African law.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge and thank the University of Pretoria and all the participants in the study, that is, learners and teachers from the three schools interviewed for this study.
Competing interests
The authors report that they received funding from the UP Doctoral Research Bursary, which may be affected by the research reported in the enclosed publication. The authors have disclosed these interests fully and have implemented an approved plan to manage any potential conflicts arising from their involvement. The terms of these funding arrangements have been reviewed and approved by the affiliated university in accordance with its policy on objectivity in research.
CRediT authorship contribution
Lebohang P. Montueli: Conceptualisation, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Visualisation, Writing – original draft. Maniraj Sukdaven: Supervision. All authors reviewed the article, contributed to the discussion of results, approved the final version for submission and publication and take responsibility for the integrity of its findings.
Funding information
The study was funded by the UP Doctoral Research Bursary.
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, Lebohang P. Montueli, upon reasonable request.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for the results, findings and content of this article.
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Footnotes
1. https://vukaninews.co.za/news/2022-08-25-school-dismissed-as-pupils-react-to-ancestral-calling/
2. An African herb mostly used for communication with ancestors and for cleansing or protection.
3. https://www.news24.com/amp/news24/community-newspaper/city-vision/ancestors-call-learners-20220824
4. https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/2025-03-07-girl-ousted-for-distruptive-behaviour-return-to-class/
5. https://iol.co.za/dailynews/news/2022-02-28-teachers-divided-over-ancestral-callings-in-schools-after-at-least-three-incidents-in-a-week-in-kzn/
6. When an individual is possessed or controlled by an ancestor.
7. A person displaying acts of ancestral callings.
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